THE SECRETARY TO GOVT. OF KERALA . vs. JAMES VARGHESE .

Case Type: Civil Appeal

Date of Judgment: 04-05-2022

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REPORTABLE IN THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA CIVIL APPELLATE JURISDICTION  CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6258 OF 2014 THE SECRETARY TO GOVT. OF KERALA, IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT AND OTHERS            ...APPELLANT(S) VERSUS JAMES VARGHESE AND OTHERS ...RESPONDENT(S) WITH CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9236 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9241 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9226 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6268 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6264 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6265 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6266 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6260 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6262 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6259 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6267 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 295 OF 2015 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6261 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 8995 OF 2014 1 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9022 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9016 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9005 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 8998 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9009 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 8997 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9002 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 8996 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 8999 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9007 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9004 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9003 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9008 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9017 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9000 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9001 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9215 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9213 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9018 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9217 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9006 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9019 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9219 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9237 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9225 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9221 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9238 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9023 OF 2014 2 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9243 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9244 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9224 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9212 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9211 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9222 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9020 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9210 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 9239 OF 2014 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 3010 OF 2017 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 2824 OF 2022 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 2825 OF 2022 CIVIL APPEAL NO. 2826 OF 2022 J U D G M E N T B.R. GAVAI, J. 1. Two important questions of law, with regard to the legislative   competence   of   the   Kerala   State   Legislature   to enact   the   Kerala   Revocation   of   Arbitration   Clauses   and Reopening of Awards Act, 1998 (hereinafter referred to as the “State Act”) and as to whether the State Act encroaches upon the judicial power of the State, are involved in the present appeals.   3  BACKGROUND: The   High   Court   of   Kerala   at   Ernakulam,   by   the 2. th impugned judgment dated 9   July 2013 delivered in O.P. No.4206 of 1998 and companion matters, has held the State Act to be beyond the legislative competence of the Kerala State   Legislature   and   as   such,   held   the   same   to   be unconstitutional.   The High Court has also held that the State   Act   had   an   effect   of   annulling   the   awards   of   the arbitrators and the judgments and decrees passed by the courts.  It was therefore held that the State Act encroaches upon   the   judicial   power   of   the   State.     Being   aggrieved thereby, the State of Kerala has approached this Court by filing various appeals. 3. The State of Kerala had started the construction of Kallada Irrigation Project (hereinafter referred to the  “said Project”) in the year 1961.  The said project was proposed to be   executed   with   the   financial   assistance   from   the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (for short “World Bank”) from June 1982 to March 1989.   As required by the World Bank, a special condition namely, the 4 Local Competitive Bidding Specification (hereinafter referred to as “LCBS”) as envisaged by the World Bank Authorities was   included   in   the   agreements   relating   to   the   works connected with the said Project.   Clauses 51 and 52 of the LCBS provided for the settlement of matters in dispute or difference through arbitration.  The same was provided with a view to enable speedy settlement of matters in dispute or difference   in   a   just   and   equitable   manner.     The   State   of Kerala   found   that   on   account   of   various   disputes   and differences,   the   arbitration   references   did   not   have   the desired effect inasmuch as several arbitrators had wrongly and arbitrarily awarded unconscionable amounts against the provisions of agreements and without material on record, in collusion with the claimant contractors and officials of the department, thereby causing heavy losses to the State.   As such, the State of Kerala considered it necessary, in public interest, to cancel the arbitration clauses in the agreements executed in terms of LCBS, to revoke the authority of the arbitrators appointed thereunder and to enable the filing of appeals   against   the   awards   or   decrees   already   passed   in 5 certain arbitration references in respect of which the period of limitation had expired.  As such, the State Act came to be th enacted with effect from 14  November 1997.   The State Act is a short Act and therefore, we deem 4. it appropriate to reproduce the same in its entirety as under: “ Kerala   Revocation   of   Arbitration   Clauses   and Reopening of Awards Act, 1998  ………….. Preamble ……….. Section 1 ­ Short title, extent, commencement and application  (1) This Act may be called the Kerala Revocation of Arbitration Clauses and Reopening of Awards Act, 1998.  (2) It extends to the whole of the State of Kerala.  (3) It shall be deemed to have come into force on the 14th day of November, 1997.  (4) It shall apply to all agreements executed in terms of the local competitive bidding specification. Section 2 ­ Definitions   (1)   In   this   Act,   unless   the   context   otherwise requires,  (a)   "agreement"   means   an   agreement executed in terms of the local competitive bidding specification for various works of the Government of Kerala;  (b)   "local   competitive   bidding specification" means the local competitive bidding   specification   adopted   by   the 6 Government in their Order G.O. (Ms) No. 3/81/I&R dated the 20th January, 1981. (2) Words and expressions used but not defined in this Act and defined in  (a) the Arbitration Act, 1940 (Central Act 10 of 1940); or  (b) the Arbitration and Conciliation. Act, 1996 (Central Act 26 of 1996), in relation to arbitration proceedings commenced on or after the 25th day of January, 1996,  shall have the meanings, respectively, assigned to them in those Acts.  Section 3 ­ Cancellation of  arbitration clauses and revocation of authority of arbitrator   (1)   Notwithstanding   anything   contained   in   the Indian Contract Act, 1872 (Central Act 9 of 1872) or in the Arbitration Act, 1940 (Central Act 10 of 1940) or   in   the   Arbitration   and   Conciliation   Act,   1996 (Central Act 26 of 1996) or in any other law for the time being in force or in any judgement, decree or order   of   any   court   or   other   authority   or   in   any agreement or other instrument,  (i)   the   arbitration   clauses   in   every agreement shall stand cancelled;  (ii)   the   authority   of   an   arbitrator appointed under an agreement referred to in clause (i) shall stand revoked; and  (iii) any agreement referred to in clause (i) shall cease to have effect in so far as it relates   to   the   matters   in   dispute   or difference referred,  with effect on and from the date of commencement of this Act.  (2) Nothing in sub­section (1) shall be a bar for any party   to   a   agreement   to   file   a   suit   in   the   court having   jurisdiction   in   the   matter   to   which   the 7 agreement relates and all questions regarding the validity   or   effect   of   the   agreement   between   the parties to the agreement or persons claiming under them   and   all   matters   in   dispute   or   difference between   the   parties   to   the   agreement   shall   be decided by the court, as if the arbitration clauses had never been included in the agreement.     Section 4 ­ Period of limitation for filing suits Notwithstanding   anything   contained   in   the Arbitration Act, 1940 (Central Act 10 of 1940) or in the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 (Central Act   26   of   1996)   or   in   the   Limitation   Act,   1963 (Central Act 36 of 1963), a suit under sub­section (2) of section 3 may be filed within six months from the   date   of   commencement   of   this   Act   or   within such period as is allowed by the provisions of the Limitation Act, 1963 (Central Act 36 of 1963), in relation to such suits, whichever is later.  Section 5 ­ Power of Government to file appeal against certain awards   Notwithstanding   anything   contained   in   the Arbitration Act, 1940 (Central Act 10 of 1940) or in the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 (Central Act   26   of   1996)   or   in   the   Limitation   Act,   1963 (Central Act 36 of 1963) or in any other law for the time being in force or in any judgement, decree or order   of   any   court   or   other   authority   or   in   any agreement or other instrument, where it appears to the Government that any award passed is not in accordance with the terms of the agreement or there was   failure   to   produce   relevant   data   or   other particulars before the Arbitrator before passing the award   or   the   award   passed   is   of   unconscionable amounts, they may file appeal against such award within ninety days of the date of commencement of this Act.  Section 6 ­ Procedure before court   8 For the removal of doubts, it is hereby clarified that the provisions of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (Central   Act   5   of   1908),   shall   apply   to   all proceedings before court and to all appeals under this Act.  Section 7 ­ Arbitration Act not to apply   The   provisions   of   this   Act   shall   apply   to   any proceedings   instituted   under   this   Act notwithstanding anything inconsistent herein with the provisions of the Arbitration Act, 1940 (Central Act 10 of 1940) or the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 (Central Act 26 of 1996) or any other law for the time being in force.  Section 8 ­ Repeal and saving   (1) The Kerala Revocation of Arbitration Clauses and Reopening of Awards Ordinance, 1998 (6 of 1998), is hereby repealed.  (2) Notwithstanding such repeal, anything done or deemed to have been done or any action taken or deemed   to   have   been   taken   under   the   said Ordinance shall be deemed to have been done or taken under this Act.” 5. Section 3 of the State Act provides for “Cancellation of   arbitration   clauses   and   revocation   of   authority   of arbitrator”.   Sub­section (1) of  Section 3 of the  State Act provides   that   notwithstanding   anything   contained   in   the Indian Contract Act, 1872 or in the Arbitration Act, 1940 (hereinafter referred to as “1940 Act”) or in the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 (hereinafter referred to as “1996 9 Act”) or in any other law for the time being in force or in any judgment, decree or order of any court or other authority or in   any   agreement   or   other   instrument,   the   arbitration clauses   in   every   agreement   shall   stand   cancelled;   the authority   of   an   arbitrator   appointed   under   an   agreement referred   to   in   clause   (i)   shall   stand   revoked;   and   any agreement referred to in clause (i) shall cease to have effect insofar as it relates to the matters in dispute or difference referred.  The same shall be with effect on and from the date of commencement of the State Act.  Sub­section (2) of Section 3 of the State Act provides that nothing provided in sub­ section (1) of Section 3 of the State Act shall be a bar for any party   to   an   agreement   to   file   a   suit   in   the   court   having jurisdiction in the matter to which the agreement relates and all questions regarding the validity or effect of the agreement between the parties to the agreement or persons claiming under them and all matters in dispute or difference between the parties to the agreement shall be decided by the court, as if the  arbitration clauses  had  never  been included  in the agreement. 10 6. Section 4 of the State Act enables a party to file a suit under sub­section (2) of Section 3 of the State Act within a period of six months from the date of commencement of the State   Act   or   within   such   period   as   is   allowed   by   the provisions of the Limitation Act, 1963 (hereinafter referred to as “1963 Act”), in relation to such suits whichever is later. This is notwithstanding anything contained in the 1940 Act or in the 1996 Act or in the 1963 Act.  Section   5   of   the   State   Act   enables   the   State 7. Government to file an appeal against any award within a period of 90 days from the date of commencement of the State Act, where it appears to the State Government that any award passed is not in accordance with the terms of the agreement or there was failure to produce relevant data or other   particulars   before   the   Arbitrator   before   passing   the award or the award passed is of unconscionable amounts. Again,   this   is   notwithstanding   anything   contained   in   the 1940 Act or in the 1996 Act or in the 1963 Act or in any other law for the time being in force or in any judgment, 11 decree or order of any court or other authority or in any agreement or other instrument. 8. Section 6 of the State Act clarifies that the provisions of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (hereinafter referred to as “CPC”) shall apply to all proceedings before the court and to all appeals under the State Act.   9. Section   7   of   the   State   Act   provides   that   the provisions of the State Act shall apply to any proceedings instituted   under   the   State   Act   notwithstanding   anything inconsistent therein with the provisions of the 1940 Act or the 1996 Act or any other law for the time being in force. 10. Sub­section (1) of Section 8 of the State Act repeals the Kerala Revocation of Arbitration Clauses and Reopening of Awards Ordinance, 1998.  Sub­section (2) of Section 8 of the   State   Act   provides   that   notwithstanding   such   repeal, anything done or deemed to have been done or any action taken   or   deemed   to   have   been   taken   under   the   said Ordinance shall be deemed to have been done or taken under the State Act. 12 11. Immediately after the  enactment  of the  State  Act, several petitions came to be filed before the High Court of Kerala challenging  the   validity  thereof.    By  the  impugned judgment, the High Court of Kerala allowed the petitions and held and declared the State Act to be unconstitutional, being beyond the legislative competence of the State Legislature.  12. It will be relevant to note that the State Act was reserved for the consideration of the President of India and had received his assent as required under Article 254 (2) of the Constitution of India. 13. The reasons  that weighed with the High Court of Kerala for holding the State Act to be unconstitutional, are as under: (i) That   the   1940   Act,   Arbitration   (Protocol   and Convention)   Act,   1937   (hereinafter   referred   to   as “1937 Act”) and the Foreign Awards (Recognition and Enforcement)   Act,   1961   (hereinafter   referred   to   as “1961   Act”)   had   become   outdated.     As   such,   the Parliament found it expedient to make a law with respect   to   arbitration   and   conciliation,   taking   into 13 account   the   United   Nations   Commission   on International   Trade   Law   (for   short   “UNCITRAL”) Model Law and Rules.   The 1996 Act was enacted with the clear intention of harmonizing concepts on arbitration and conciliation of different legal systems of the world on the basis of UNCITRAL Model Law and Rules.   As such, the matters dealt with by the 1996 Act were not the matters merely falling under Entry 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India but also falling within Entries 10 to 14 of List I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India; (ii) Since   Entries   10   to   14   of   List   I   of   the   Seventh Schedule   to   the   Constitution   of   India   deal   with foreign   affairs,   relationship   with   foreign   countries, United   Nations   Organization,   participation   in international   conferences,   associations   and   other bodies and implementing of decisions made thereat, entering   into   treaties   and   agreements   and implementing   of   treaties,   agreements   and 14 conventions, the issue of applicability of Article 253 of the Constitution of India would arise.  As such, the Union Parliament had an overriding legislative power to make any law for the whole or any part of the territory   of   India.     Once   a   Central   Legislation referable to Article 253 of the Constitution of India comes into being, then the State Act cannot be said to be valid only in view of the Presidential assent received under Article 254 (2) of the Constitution of India; (iii) That the executive power of the Union is coextensive with the  legislative power of  the Parliament under Article 73(1)(b) of the Constitution of India.  As such, the 1996 Act is enacted by the Central Legislation in order   to   give   effect   to   the   executive   power   of   the Government of India, to give effect to the decisions taken at the international conference.  As such, if it is held that the Presidential assent under Article 254 (2) of  the Constitution of  India would validate the 15 State Act, then the very purpose of Article 253 of the Constitution of India would be destroyed; (iv) That LCBS can be traced only to entries in the Union List, in particular, to Entry 37, as also, Entries 10 and   14   of   List   I   of   the   Seventh   Schedule   to   the Constitution   of   India.     Entry   37   in   List   I   of   the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India deals with   foreign   loans.   That   Article   292   of   the Constitution   of   India   specifically   deals   with   the borrowing   by   the   Government   of   India.     That   the assistance provided by the World Bank also primarily falls   within   the   executive   power   of   the   Union referable to Article 73 (1)(b) of the Constitution of India  and  as  such,  the  State  Act was  beyond  the legislative competence of the State Legislature;  (v) That   the   proceedings   which   were   made   subject matter of the State Act, could have been dealt with only within the Judicial power of the State through the courts in terms of the provisions of the 1940 Act and 1996 Act.  As such, the impugned legislation was 16 an encroachment into the Judicial power of the State which was exercised through the courts in terms of the laws already made and in force.   It infracts the quality   doctrine   and   the   avowed   constitutional principles insulating the Judicial function which is cardinal   to   deliverance   of   justice   as   part   of   the seminal constitutional values, including separation of powers; and  (vi) That there was nothing on record to show that any relevant   material   had   gained   the   attention   of   the legislature except the superfluous statements in the Preamble to the State Act with regard to misconduct by arbitrators.  As such, the State Act suffers on the said count also. 14. We have extensively heard Shri Jaideep Gupta, and Shri Pallav Shishodia, learned Senior Counsel appearing on behalf of the appellants. Shri Krishnan Venugopal, learned Senior   Counsel   led   the   arguments   on   behalf   of   the respondents.     The   arguments   of   Shri   Venugopal   were concisely   supplemented   by   Shri   P.C.   Sen,   learned   Senior 17 Counsel, Shri C.N. Sreekumar, learned Senior Counsel, Smt. Haripriya   Padmanabhan,   learned   counsel,   Shri   Kuriakose Varghese,   learned   counsel,   Shri   John   Mathew,   learned counsel and Shri Roy Abraham, learned counsel.  SUBMISSIONS ON BEHALF OF THE APPELLANTS: 15. Shri Gupta, learned Senior Counsel submitted that the impugned judgment of the High Court of Kerala suffers on various grounds.  Shri Gupta further submitted that the High Court of Kerala committed a basic error in holding that the 1996 Act is universally applicable.  He submitted that the 1996   Act   would   be   applicable   only   when   there   is   an agreement between the parties, whereby they have agreed to refer their dispute to arbitration.   It is therefore submitted that what has been done by the State Act is a cancellation of contract by a statute and as such, the State Act or a part thereof would be referable to Entry 7 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.   16. Shri Gupta submitted that the rest of the legislation deals with the consequences of cancellation of the Arbitration 18 clause in the Agreement.  It is submitted that on cancellation of an agreement, sub­section (2) of Section 3 of the State Act provides an opportunity to any party to the agreement to file a suit in a competent civil court.  He submitted that Section 4 of the State Act extends the period of limitation for filing of the   suit.     Section   5   of   the   State   Act   enables   the   State Government   to   challenge   the   award   on   various   grounds stated  therein,   within  a  specified   period.     It  is,   therefore, submitted that the State Act is referable to Entries 7 and 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India and as such, within the legislative competence of the State Legislature. 17. Shri   Gupta   further   submitted   that   the   legislative competence   of   the   State   Legislature   can   only   be circumscribed by the express prohibition contained in the Constitution of India itself.  It is submitted that unless and until   there   is   any   provision   in   the   Constitution   of   India expressly   prohibiting   legislation   on   the   subject   either absolutely   or   conditionally,   there   can   be   no   fetter   or limitation on the plenary power which the State Legislature 19 enjoys to legislate on the topic enumerated in Lists II and III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.   In support of this proposition, he relies on the judgment of this Court in the case of   Maharaj Umeg Singh and Others v. 1 State of Bombay and Others . Shri   Gupta   further   submitted   that   there   is   no 18. repugnancy between the 1996 Act and the State Act.   He submitted that the 1996 Act would apply where there is an arbitration clause in the agreement.  If there is no arbitration clause in the agreement, the 1996 Act would not apply.  He submitted that the 1996 Act itself is a legislation enacted with reference to Entry 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.  In support of this proposition, he relies on the judgments of this Court in the cases of  G.C. 2 , Kanungo v. State of Orissa   State of Gujarat through 3 Chief Secretary and Another v. Amber Builders ,  Madhya Pradesh Rural Road Development Authority and Another 1 [1955] 2 SCR 164 2 (1995) 5 SCC 96 3 (2020) 2 SCC 540 20 4 v.   L.G.   Chaudhary   Engineers   and   Contractors (hereinafter   referred   to   as   “ ”), MP   Rural   2012   Madhya Pradesh Rural Road Development Authority and Another 5 v.   L.G.   Chaudhary   Engineers   and   Contractors (hereinafter referred to as “ MP Rural 2018 ”). 19. Shri Gupta submitted that assuming, but without accepting, that there is some conflict between the 1996 Act and the State Act, the State Act having been reserved for the consideration of the President of India and having received his assent, will prevail over the provisions of the 1996 Act, in view of Article 254 (2) of the Constitution of India. Shri Gupta submitted that the State Act does not 20. relate to any Entry in List I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.  He submitted that the approach of the High   Court   of   Kerala   has   been   totally   erroneous.     It   is submitted   that   since   all   the   three   Lists   of   the   Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India contain a number of entries, some overlapping is bound to happen.   In such a 4 (2012) 3 SCC 495 5 (2018) 10 SCC 826 21 situation, the doctrine of pith and substance is required to be applied to determine as to which entry does a given piece of legislation relate to.  He submitted that regard must be had to the enactment as a whole, to its main object and to the scope and effect of its provisions.  He submitted that when a legislation is traceable, in pith and substance, to an entry with regard to which a State is competent to legislate, then incidental and superficial encroachments on the other entry will have to be disregarded.  Reference in this respect is made to   the   judgments   of   this   Court   in   the   cases   of   Hoechst Pharmaceutical Ltd. and Others v. State of Bihar and 6  and  Others State of West Bengal v. Kesoram Industries 7 Ltd. and Others .   It is therefore submitted that since the impugned legislation is in pith and substance a legislation in the field covered by Entries 7 and 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India, the same would not invalidate the State Act. 21. Shri Gupta submitted that the High Court of Kerala has also erred in holding that the 1996 Act is referable to 6 (1983) 4 SCC 45 7 (2004) 10 SCC 201 22 Article 253 of the Constitution of India.  He submitted that the UNCITRAL Model Law which was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations, recommended that all the countries give due consideration to it while enacting the laws governing international commercial arbitration practices.  He submitted that, in any case, the Model Law is neither a treaty nor an agreement, convention, decision within the meaning of Article 253 of the Constitution of India or for that matter Entries 13 and 14 of List I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution   of   India.   He   submitted   that   following   the principle of  , the word ‘decision’ will have to ejusdem generis be construed as one which will mean a binding obligation on the States.  In this respect, he relies on the judgment of this Court in the case of  Kavalappara Kottarathil Kochuni @ Moopil   Nayar   v.   States   of   Madras   and   Kerala   and 8 . Others 22. Shri Gupta also relies on the rule of construction known as  Noscitur a sociis , that is, the meaning of a word is to be judged by the company it keeps.   In this respect, he 8 [1960] 3 SCR 887 23 relies on the judgment of this Court in the case of   M.K. 9 . Ranganathan v. Government of Madras and Others 23. Shri Gupta further submitted that it is a settled rule of   construction   of   the   Constitution,   that   every   attempt should   be   made   to   harmonize   apparently   conflicting provisions and entries, not only of different lists, but also of the same list and to reject the construction that would rob one of the entries of its entire content and make it nugatory. In this respect, he relies on the judgments of this Court in the cases of   Calcutta Gas Company (Proprietary) Ltd. v. 10 State   of   West   Bengal   and   Others   and   Sri Venkataramana Devaru and Others v. State of Mysore 11 . and Others 24. Shri   Gupta   further   submitted   that   since   the provisions of Article 253 of the Constitution of India have the effect of restricting the power of the State Legislature, the said Article should be given the narrowest possible meaning in order to harmonize it with the Entries in Lists II and III of 9 [1955] 2 SCR 374 10 1962 Supp (3) SCR 1 11 [1958] SCR 895 24 the   Seventh   Schedule   to   the   Constitution   of   India.     He submitted that this can be done by interpreting that only the legislations enacted to give effect to binding obligation are covered by the said Article. Shri Gupta further submitted that the Model Law is 25. a suggested pattern for law makers which only recommends the practices to be adopted in the international arbitration and not for the domestic arbitration and as such, it cannot be held that it has any binding obligation insofar as domestic arbitration is concerned. 26. Shri  Shishodia,   learned   Senior   Counsel  submitted that in the earlier statutory scheme prior to the 1996 Act, the 1940   Act   governed   the   domestic   arbitration,   whereas   the 1937   Act   and   the   1961   Act   governed   international commercial arbitrations. He submitted that in the 1996 Act, the domestic arbitrations are governed by Part I, whereas Part   II   governs   international   commercial   arbitrations   with separate specific provisions for Geneva Convention Awards and   New   York   Convention   Awards.     He   submitted   that however,   even   in   the   1996   Act,   the   historical   as   well   as 25 contemporary   distinction   between   an   international commercial arbitration and domestic arbitration remains.  In this respect, he relies on the judgment of this Court in the case   of   Fuerst   Day   Lawson   Limited   v.   Jindal   Exports 12 Limited .     He   submitted   that   the   1996   Act   actually consolidates,   amends   and   puts   together   three   different enactments. 27. Shri   Shishodia   further   submitted   that   after   the Presidential assent was received under Article 254 (2) of the Constitution of India, the test to be applied to the State Law to be held repugnant to Central Law is that “there is no room or possibility for both Acts to apply”.     He submitted that no such repugnancy has been pointed out by the respondents in the State Act vis­à­vis the 1940 Act and 1996 Act.   In this respect, he relies on the judgment of this Court in the case of Rajiv Sarin and Another v. State of Uttarakhand and 13 . Others 12 (2011) 8 SCC 333 13 (2011) 8 SCC 708 26 28. Shri Shishodia as well as Shri Gupta submitted that merely because some part of the said Project is financed by the World Bank, it cannot be a ground to invalidate the State Act which is referable to Entry 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.  SUBMISSIONS ON BEHALF OF THE RESPONDENTS: Per contra, Shri Venugopal, learned Senior Counsel 29. appearing on behalf of some of the respondents submitted that the State Act is wholly arbitrary and violative of Article 14 of the Constitution of India. He submitted that the State Act arbitrarily singles out the said Project started in the year 1961   out   of   all   the   projects   in   Kerala,   for   revocation   of arbitration clauses in agreements.   He submitted that the High Court of Kerala has rightly held that no material was placed   by   the   State   Government   to   show   that   collusive awards   had   been   made   because   of   a   nexus   between arbitrators and claimant contractors.   Learned Senior Counsel submitted that the State Act 30. is traceable to Entries 12, 13, 14 as well as Entry 37 of List I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.   He 27 submitted   that   Entries   12   to  14   relate   to   United   Nations Organization,   participation   in   international   conferences, associations and other bodies and implementing of decisions made thereat and entering into treaties and agreements with foreign countries and implementing of treaties, agreements and conventions with foreign countries.   He submitted that the State has enacted a legislature which is related to these entries, which are exclusively within the domain of the Union Legislature. He further submitted that Entry 37 deals with foreign   loans.     He   submitted   that   since   the   State   Act attempts to deal with the loans taken from the World Bank, it will be an encroachment on the legislative field reserved for the Union Legislature.    It  is  therefore  submitted  that  the State Act is enacted by the State Legislature in respect of entries which are exclusively within the jurisdiction of the Central Legislation and as such, beyond the competence of the State  Legislature.   He submitted that the question of Presidential assent under Article 254 (2) of the Constitution of India would arise only when the legislation is in respect of items covered in List III, i.e., the Concurrent List.  Since the 28 State   Act  deals   with  the   entries   exclusively   in  List   I,   the Presidential assent would be of no consequence to save the State Act. Shri   Venugopal   submitted   that   the   1996   Act   is 31. clearly   referable   to   the   decision   taken   at   international conference, i.e., the General Assembly of United Nations held th on 11  December 1985.  In support of the said submission, he   relies   on   the   judgment   of   this   Court   in   the   case   of Maganbhai Ishwarbhai Patel Etc. v. Union of India and 14 Another .    Relying on the judgment of this Court in the case 15 of   ,  he S.   Jagannath   v.   Union   of   India   and   Others submitted that Article 253 of the Constitution of India would also be applicable to the legislations enacted for giving effect to the decisions taken at the  international conference, which are not binding in nature. Shri Venugopal submitted that a law passed under 32. Article 253 of the Constitution of India would denude the State Legislature of its competence to make any law on the 14 (1970) 3 SCC 400 15 (1997) 2 SCC 87 29 same subject matter regardless of whether the subject matter falls in List II or List III.  He therefore submitted that since the 1996 Act has been enacted by the Parliament in exercise of Legislative power under Article 253 of the Constitution of India,   the   State   Legislature   would   not   have   the   power   to make a law which is repugnant thereto, even with regard to subjects falling in List II or List III.  A reference is again made to the judgment of this Court in the case of   Maganbhai (supra).  In this regard, the learned Senior Ishwarbhai Patel  Counsel also relies on the judgments of this Court in the cases   of   Mantri   Techzone   Private   Limited   v.   Forward 16 ,   Foundation and Others State of Bihar and Others v. 17 Bihar Chamber of Commerce and Others   and   Jayant 18 . Verma and Others v. Union of India and Others 33. Shri Venugopal further submitted that the State Act is also discriminatory inasmuch as the State  Government has been given an absolute discretion as to against which award, it will prefer an appeal and against which, it will not 16 (2019) 18 SCC 494 17 (1996) 9 SCC 136 18 (2018) 4 SCC 743 30 prefer an appeal.  He relies on the judgments of this Court in the cases of  Suraj Mall Mohta and Co. v. A.V. Visvanatha 19  and Sastri and Another  B.B. Rajwanshi v. State of U.P. 20 and Others . 34. Shri Venugopal further submitted that the State Act interferes with the  doctrine of  “separation of powers” and encroaches upon the powers of the judiciary, inasmuch as the   State   Act   empowers   the   State   to   interfere   with   the awards.  He submitted that this is not permissible in view of the   law   laid   down   by   this   Court   in   the   case   of   B.B. Rajwanshi  (supra). 35. Shri Venugopal would further submit that assuming, but without admitting that the State Act was not arbitrary when it was originally passed, but by passage of time, it has become   arbitrary   and   unreasonable.     He   submitted   that much earlier to the enactment of the State Act, not only the awards   have   become   final   but   the   amount   awarded   has already been paid to the claimants.  As such, if the State Act 19 [1955] 1 SCR 448 20 (1988) 2 SCC 415 31 is permitted to operate now, it will amount to arbitrariness and   unreasonableness.   He   therefore   submitted   that   the present appeals deserve to be dismissed.  Shri P.C. Sen, learned Senior Counsel appearing on 36. behalf of some of the respondents submitted that the State Act has the effect of depriving the respondents’ settled right of property under Article 300­A of the Constitution of India which has been acquired as per law.  He submitted that the awards   passed,   create   a   right   in   the   property   and   are enforceable when the same are made a decree of the court. In this regard, he relies on the judgment of this Court in the case of  Satish Kumar and Others v. Surinder Kumar and 21 . Others 37. Shri Sen further submitted that in the present case, the awards have been acted upon and payments have been made.     Therefore,   vested   rights   have   been   crystalized   in favour of the respondents.   He submitted that such vested rights cannot be taken away by the State Act.   Reliance in this respect is placed on the judgment of this Court in the 21 [1969] 2 SCR 244 32 case of  Andhra Pradesh Dairy Development Corporation 22 . Federation v. B. Narasimha Reddy and Others 38. Shri   Sen   further   submitted   that   a   unilateral alteration of contract is violative of the fundamental principle of justice.  It is submitted that what has been sought to be done by the State Act is unilateral addition or alteration of the contract and foisting the same on unwilling parties.  It is submitted that the same would not be permissible.  Reliance in this respect is placed on the judgment of this Court in the case   of   Ssangyong   Engineering   and   Construction Company   Limited   v.   National   Highways   Authority   of 23 India (NHAI) . 39. Shri   Sen   further   submitted   that   the   impugned legislation encroaches upon the judicial power and judicial functions and in turn, amounts to infringement of the basic structure   of   the   Constitution   of   India.     Reliance   in   this respect is placed on the judgment of this Court in the case of SREI   Infrastructure   Finance   Limited   v.   Tuff   Drilling 22 (2011) 9 SCC 286 23 (2019) 15 SCC 131 33 24 Private Limited .  He further submitted that the judgment of this Court in the case of   (supra), rather G.C. Kanungo   than supporting the case of the appellants, would support the case of the respondents. 40. Shri Sen, relying on the judgment of this Court in the case of   (supra), would submit that the S. Jagannath   1996 Act is referable to Article 253 of the Constitution of India and as such, the State Act which is repugnant thereto, would not be valid in law. 41. Shri   C.N.   Sreekumar,   learned   Senior   Counsel appearing on behalf of some of the respondents submitted that  the   State   Act is   liable   to  be   declared  invalid  on  the ground of manifest arbitrariness.   It is submitted that the State Act has been enacted, which acts to the prejudice of the   private   parties   and   undoubtedly   favours   the   State Government.    It is submitted that Section 34 (2A) of the 1996 rd Act came into effect on 23   October 2015, i.e., much after the enactment of the State Act.  It is therefore submitted that assuming that the State Act was validly enacted, however 24 (2018) 11 SCC 470 34 rd upon introduction of Section 34 (2A) of the 1996 Act on 23 October  2015,  the   State  Act has  been impliedly  repealed. Reliance in this respect is placed on the judgments of this Court   in   the   cases   of   Saverbhai   Amaidas   v.   State   of 25 26 Bombay  and  T. Barai v. Henry Ah Hoe and Another . Smt. Padmanabhan, learned counsel appearing on 42. behalf of some of the respondents submitted that the assent of   the   President   of   India   under   Article   254(2)   of   the Constitution of India is not a matter of idle formality.   She submitted   that   unless   the   State   satisfies   that   relevant material was placed before the President of India and he was made aware about the grounds on which the Presidential assent was sought, the Presidential assent would not save the State Act from being invalid. In this respect, she relies on the judgment of this Court in the case of  Gram Panchayat 27 . of Village Jamalpur v. Malwinder Singh and Others 43. Smt. Padmanabhan submitted that the State Act is also arbitrary and violative of Article 14 of the Constitution of 25 [1955] 1 SCR 799 26 (1983) 1 SCC 177 27 (1985) 3 SCC 661 35 India.    She  submitted  that  the   State   Act  treats   unequals equally by failing to make a distinction between the cases where there is a fraud and where there is no fraud.  In this respect, she relies on the judgment of this Court in the case of  State of Maharashtra v. Mrs. Kamal Sukumar Durgule 28 and Others . 44. Relying on the judgments of this Court in the cases of   Ashok   Kumar   alias   Golu   v.   Union   of   India   and 29 , Others   S.S.   Bola   and   Others   v.   B.D.   Sardana   and 30 Others   and   Madras Bar Association v. Union of India 31 , Smt.   Padmanabhan   submitted   that   the and   Another   legislature   does   not   have   the   competence   to   enact   a legislation which sets aside the judgment or an award passed by a court. 45. Shri   John   Mathew,   learned   counsel   appearing   on behalf of some of the respondents submitted that the State Act is discriminatory in nature.  He submitted that the State, 28 (1985) 1 SCC 234 29 (1991) 3 SCC 498 30 (1997) 8 SCC 522 31 2021 SCC OnLine SC 463 36 out of 343 cases, has chosen to file an appeal only insofar as 55 claims/cases are concerned.  He also submitted that the State Act has sought to alter the rights and remedies in the contracts executed with the State nearly a decade before the State Act was brought into effect.  He submitted that certain claimants   are   being   denied   the   equal   treatment   as   is available to large number of similarly situated claimants who are getting benefits under the 1996 Act. 46. Shri Mathew submitted that if the legislative power is   exercised   by   the   State   Legislature   in   transgression   of Constitutional limitations with respect to Article 13(2) of the Constitution of India which prohibits the State from making any law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by Part­III   of   the   Constitution   of   India,   such   an   exercise   of power would be invalid in law.   In this regard, he relies on the judgment of this Court in the case of   State of Kerala and Others v. Mar Appraem Kuri Company Limited and 32 . Another 32 (2012) 7 SCC 106 37 47. Shri Mathew further submitted that the State Act is not only in conflict with the 1996 Act but is also in conflict with the Commercial Courts Act, 2015 (hereinafter referred to   as   “2015   Act”).     He   submitted   that   all   the   disputes involved in the present matters are commercial disputes as defined under Section 2(c) of the 2015 Act.   He submitted that the 2015 Act is a subsequent Central enactment and therefore, the State Act being an earlier Act enacted by the State Legislature and repugnant to the Central enactment, cannot exist.  It is submitted that the enactment of the 2015 Act would amount to a pro tanto repeal of the State Act. Reliance in this respect is placed on the judgments of this Court in the cases of   T. Barai   (supra) and   Mar Appraem (supra). Kuri Company Limited and Another  48. Shri Mathew further submitted that only when the proceedings went against the State, they illegally enacted the State Act in order to either deny payments or delay them by compelling   the   respondents   to   face   or   to   undergo   an altogether different remedy for the very same cause of action. In this regard, he relies on the judgments of this Court in the 38 cases of   State of Tamil Nadu and Others v. K. Shyam 33 and Sunder   and   Others     Deep   Chand   and   Others   v. 34 State of Uttar Pradesh and Others . 49. Shri Kuriakose Varghese, learned counsel appearing on behalf of some of the respondents submitted that apart from   making   the   bald   allegation   that   there   was   collusion between   the   contractors   and   the   officials,   no   material   is placed on record. He submitted that the State Act which has been enacted, in the absence of sufficient material, would not be sustainable in law.  Reliance in this respect is placed on the judgment of this Court in the case of  Ladli Construction Co. (P) Ltd. v. Punjab Police Housing Corpn. Ltd. and 35 . Others 50. Shri Varghese submitted that though the State Act is purportedly enacted in public interest, rather than it being in public interest, it is contrary to the public interest.   It is submitted   that   this   Court   in   the   case   of   Hindustan 33 (2011) 8 SCC 737 34  [1959] Supp (2) SCR 8 35 (2012) 4 SCC 609 39 Construction Co. Ltd. and Another v. Union of India and 36 , has   held   that   reasonableness,   adequate Others   determining   principle   and   public   interest   have   to   march hand in hand.   He submitted that the State Act derogates from  the principle of  speedy  settlement  of disputes in an arbitrary and selective manner and therefore, is not valid being contrary to public interest. Shri   Roy   Abraham,   learned   counsel   appearing   on 51. behalf of some of the respondents also made submissions which are on similar lines as are made by other counsel for respondents.  SUBMISSIONS   ON   BEHALF   OF   THE   APPELLANTS   IN REJOINDER: 52. Shri   Gupta,   learned   Senior   Counsel,   in   rejoinder, submitted that the reliance placed by the respondents on the judgment of this Court in the case of   Kesoram Industries (supra) is misplaced inasmuch as the paragraphs which Ltd.  are   relied   on   by   the   respondents   are   from   the   minority judgment.  He submitted that, on the contrary, the majority 36 (2020) 17 SCC 324 40 judgment upholds the validity of the State Legislation.   He submitted   that   insofar   as   the   reliance   placed   by   the respondents on the judgments of this Court in the cases of (supra)   and   S.   Jagannath   Mantri   Techzone   Private Limited  (supra) are concerned, the same nowhere held that the   State   Legislature   would   be   denuded   of   the   field altogether, beyond what the treaty and/or the Parliamentary legislation covered. He submitted that merely because the said Project was, in part, financed by the World Bank, it cannot be said that the State Act is, in pith and substance, a legislation   in   the   field   of   foreign   loans   and   is   therefore, beyond the competence of the State Legislature. Shri   Gupta   refuted   the   allegations   with   regard   to 53. arbitrary and  discriminatory nature of the State  Act.   He submitted that the correctness of the reasons stated by the State  Legislature  cannot   be   the  subject  matter   of   judicial review.  Reliance in this respect is placed on the judgment of this Court in the case of  K. Nagaraj and Others v. State of 37 Andhra Pradesh and Another . 37 (1985) 1 SCC 523 41 54. Shri   Gupta   submitted   that   Section   9   of   the   CPC provides  for the  plenary  jurisdiction of  the  civil courts  to decide disputes of civil nature unless excluded by law.   He submitted that so long as the parties are governed by an arbitration   agreement,   the   civil   courts,   though   having jurisdiction   to   entertain   civil   suits   in   respect   of   disputes arising out of the contract between the parties, are required to refer the disputes, if any, to arbitration under Sections 8 and 11 of the 1996 Act and Sections 20 and 34 of the 1940 Act.     However,   once   the   arbitration   agreement   stands cancelled,   all   fetters   would   stand   removed   and   the   civil courts will have the jurisdiction to entertain the disputes.  It is submitted that the argument with regard to the forum to which an appeal would lie, being not provided is without substance. He submitted that by virtue of Section 6 of the State Act, CPC is applicable to all the proceedings and an appeal  will lie   to  the  court,   based  on  the  court  which  is rendering the judgment or award and/or passing the decree on award.   As such, the argument regarding vagueness is without substance. 42 55. Insofar  as   the   argument  with  regard   to  the   State having the right to pick and choose cases in which appeals are to be filed, Shri Gupta submitted that every litigant has a choice to accept the judgment and order of a trial court or to challenge the same.   He submitted that it is not the case where alternative proceedings are available to the State to take administrative action against different parties, some of which are more onerous than others.  In this regard, he relies on   the   judgments   of   this   Court   in   the   cases   of   Nagpur Improvement   Trust   and   Another   v.   Vithal   Rao   and 38   and   Others State of Kerala and Others v. T.M. Peter 39 and Others .   He further submitted that Section 5 of the State Act itself provides sufficient guidelines regarding the cases   in   which   the   State   would   be   empowered   to   file   an appeal.  As such, it cannot be said that the power given to the State to file an appeal is unguided. 56. Shri   Gupta   concluded   by   submitting   that   the argument that the State Act interferes with the judicial power of the State is also devoid of any substance.  The State Act 38 (1973) 1 SCC 500 39 (1980) 3 SCC 554 43 merely provides for an appeal against the decree which will be tested  in the  appeal and  as  such,  the  final word  still remains with the judiciary.  He therefore submitted that all the   contentions   raised   on   behalf   of   the   respondents   are without merit.  CONSIDERATION:LEGISLATIVE   COMPETENCE   OF   THE   STATE LEGISLATURE TO ENACT THE STATE LAW: 57. We   first   propose   to   consider   the   question   as   to whether the State Act is within the legislative competence of the State Legislature as contended by the appellants or as to whether it is beyond the legislative competence of the State Legislature as contended by the respondents.  For that, the question that will have to be answered is as to whether the source of the impugned legislation (State Act) is Entry 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India or   as   to   whether   the   impugned   legislation   (State   Act)   is referable to Entries 12, 13, 14 and 37 of List I of the Seventh Schedule and Article 253 of the Constitution of India.   We 44 will also have to examine the scope of clause (2) of Article 254 of the Constitution of India. 58. It will be relevant to reproduce Entries 12, 13, 14 and 37 of List I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India as under: “ Seventh Schedule (Article 246) List I – Union List …………. 12.  United Nations Organization. 13.     Participation   in   international   conferences, associations and other bodies and implementing of decisions made thereat. 14.   Entering into treaties and agreements with foreign   countries   and   implementing   of   treaties, agreements   and   conventions   with   foreign countries. …….. 37.  Foreign loans. ……….” 59. It will also be apposite to refer to Entry 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India, which reads thus: “ Seventh Schedule (Article 246) List III – Concurrent List 45 ………… 13.  Civil procedure, including all matters  included in the Code of Civil Procedure at the  commencement of this Constitution, limitation  and arbitration. ……….” Article 253 of the Constitution of India reads thus: 60.253.     Legislation   for   giving   effect   to international   agreements.   –   Notwithstanding anything contained in the foregoing provisions of this Chapter, Parliament has power to make any law for the whole or any part of the territory of India for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other country or countries or any   decision   made   at   any   international conference, association or other body.”    61. For   considering   the   question   in   hand,   it   will   be apposite to seek guidance from the precedents of this Court. It will be relevant to refer to the following observations of this Court in the case of  G.C. Kanungo  (supra):
10.…… Subject of arbitration finds place in
Entry 13 of List III, i.e., the Concurrent List of
Seventh Schedule to the Constitution on which
the legislation could be made either by
Parliament or the State Legislature. When there is
already the legislation of Parliament made on this
subject, it operates in respect of all States in
India, if not excepted. Since it is open to a State
46
Legislature also to legislate on the same subject
of arbitration, in that, it lies within its field of
legislation falling in an entry in the Concurrent
List and when a particular State Legislature has
made a law or Act on that subject for making it
applicable to its State, all that becomes necessary
to validate such law is to obtain the assent of the
President by reserving it for his consideration.
When such assent is obtained, the provisions of
the State Law or Act so enacted prevails in the
State concerned, notwithstanding its repugnancy
to an earlier Parliamentary enactment made on
the subject. It was not disputed that insofar as
the 1991 Amendment is concerned, it has been
assented to by the President of India after it was
reserved for his consideration. Hence, the Orissa
State Legislature's enactment, the 1991
Amendment Act is that made on a subject within
its legislative field and when assent of the
President is obtained for it after reserving it for
his consideration it becomes applicable to the
State of Orissa, notwithstanding anything
contained therein repugnant to what is in the
Principal Act of Parliament, it cannot be held to
be unconstitutional as that made by the Orissa
State Legislature without the necessary legislative
competence.”
62. It could thus be seen that this Court has observed that the s ubject of arbitration finds place in Entry 13 of List III, i.e., the Concurrent List of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.   It has been held that the legislation pertaining to the  said entry could be made either by the Parliament or the State Legislature. It has been held that 47 since the subject of arbitration is in the Concurrent List, the State can also make a law with regard to the same.  The only requirement is that to validate such a law, it is necessary to reserve the same for consideration of the President of India and obtain his assent.  When such an assent is obtained, the provisions of the State Law or Act so enacted would prevail in the State concerned, notwithstanding its repugnancy with an earlier Parliamentary enactment made on the subject.   It is not in dispute that in the present case also, the State Act was reserved for consideration of the President of India and the assent of the President of India has been obtained.  As such, the State Act so enacted would prevail in the State of Kerala. 63. It will further be pertinent to note that in the case of ,   the   M.P.   Madhyastham   Adhikaran MP   Rural   2012 Adhiniyam, 1983 (State enactment) provided for mandatory statutory arbitration in the State of M.P. irrespective of the arbitration agreement in respect of works contracts in the State   of   M.P.   or   its   instrumentalities.   An   argument   was sought to be made on behalf of the claimants that the State 48 Act   was   repugnant   to   the   1996   Act   and   that   in   view   of Section   85   of   the   1996   Act,   the   M.P.   Act,   1983   stood impliedly   repealed.     There   was   a   difference   of   opinion between   the   two   learned   Judges   on   the   Bench.     A.K. Ganguly, J., on the Bench, observed thus:
“38. The argument of repugnancy is also not<br>tenable. Entry 13 of the Concurrent List in the<br>Seventh Schedule of the Constitution runs as<br>follows:
“13. Civil procedure, including all<br>matters included in the Code of Civil<br>Procedure at the commencement of<br>this Constitution, limitation and<br>arbitration.”
In view of the aforesaid entry, the State<br>Government is competent to enact laws in<br>relation to arbitration.
39. The M.P. Act of 1983 was made when the<br>previous Arbitration Act of 1940 was in the field.<br>That Act of 1940 was a Central law. Both the Acts<br>operated in view of Section 46 of the 1940 Act.<br>The M.P. Act, 1983 was reserved for the assent of<br>the President and admittedly received the same<br>on 17­10­1983 which was published in the<br>Madhya Pradesh Gazette Extraordinary dated 12­<br>10­1983. Therefore, the requirement of Article<br>254(2) of the Constitution was satisfied. Thus, the<br>M.P. Act of 1983 prevails in the State of Madhya<br>Pradesh. Thereafter, the AC Act, 1996 was<br>enacted by Parliament repealing the earlier laws
49
of arbitration of 1940. It has also been noted that<br>the AC Act, 1996 saves the provisions of the M.P.<br>Act, 1983 under Sections 2(4) and 2(5) thereof.<br>Therefore, there cannot be any repugnancy. (See<br>the judgment of this Court in T. Barai v. Henry<br>Ah Hoe [(1983) 1 SCC 177 : 1983 SCC (Cri) 143 :<br>AIR 1983 SC 150] .)
40. In this connection the observations made by<br>the Constitution Bench of this Court in M.<br>Karunanidhi v. Union of India [(1979) 3 SCC 431 :<br>1979 SCC (Cri) 691] are very pertinent and the<br>following observations are excerpted: (SCC p.<br>450, para 37)
“37. … It is, therefore, clear that in<br>view of this clear intention of the<br>legislature there can be no room for<br>any argument that the State Act was in<br>any way repugnant to the Central Acts.<br>We have already pointed out from the<br>decisions of the Federal Court and this<br>Court that one of the important tests to<br>find out as to whether or not there is<br>repugnancy is to ascertain the<br>intention of the legislature regarding<br>the fact that the dominant legislature<br>allowed the subordinate legislature to<br>operate in the same field pari passu<br>the State Act.”
41. It is clear from the aforesaid observations<br>that in the instant case the latter Act made by<br>Parliament i.e. the AC Act, 1996 clearly showed<br>an intention to the effect that the State law of<br>arbitration i.e. the M.P. Act should operate in the<br>State of Madhya Pradesh in respect of certain<br>specified types of arbitrations which are under
50 the M.P. Act, 1983. This is clear from Sections 2(4) and 2(5) of the AC Act, 1996. Therefore, there is no substance in the argument of repugnancy and is accordingly rejected.” 64. Since Gyan Sudha Mishra, J. disagreed with A.K. Ganguly, J. in the said case, the matter was referred to a larger Bench. 65. The Bench consisting of three learned Judges in the case of  , agreed with the view expressed by MP Rural 2018 Ganguly, J.  66. It could be seen that this Court in the case of  G.C. Kanungo  (supra) as well as in the case of  MP Rural 2018 , has held that the source of the enactment of the 1940 Act, 1996 Act so also the State Acts legislated by Orissa and MP Legislatures is Entry 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.  Ordinarily, if there is any conflict between the Central law and the State law, in view of clause (1) of Article 254 of the Constitution of India, the Central law would prevail.  However, in view of clause (2) of Article 254 of the Constitution of India, the State law would prevail when it 51 is   reserved   for   consideration   and   receives   assent   of   the President of India.   67. Recently, this Court, in the case of   G. Mohan Rao 40 , has and Others v. State of Tamil Nadu and Others   observed thus: “ 47.  Article   254(2)   is   produced   again   for   ready reference thus: “254.   Inconsistency   between   laws made by Parliament and laws made by the Legislatures of States. — (1) … (2)   Where   a  law   made   by   the Legislature   of   a   State   with respect   to   one   of  the   matters enumerated   in the  Concurrent List   contains   any   provision repugnant to the provisions of an   earlier   law   made   by  or   an   existing   law Parliament with   respect   to   that   matter, then,  the   law   so   made   by   the Legislature of such State shall , if   it   has   been   reserved   for   the consideration   of   the   President and  has   received   his   assent, prevail in that State :” (emphasis supplied) 48.  The basic ingredients for the application of Article 254(2) can be noted thus: 40 2021 SCC OnLine SC 440 52
(i) A law made by the legislature of the<br>State (the 2019 Act in this case);
(ii) Such law is made on a subject<br>falling in the concurrent list (Entry­42<br>of the Concurrent List in this case);
(iii) Such law is repugnant to the<br>provisions of an earlier/existing law<br>made by the Parliament (the 2013 Act<br>in this case); and
(iv) The State law is reserved for the<br>assent of the President and has<br>received the same.
49. Upon fulfilment of the above conditions, such<br>State law would prevail in the State despite there<br>being a law made by the Parliament on the same<br>subject and despite being repugnant thereto. The<br>most peculiar feature of Article 254(2) is the<br>recognition of existence of repugnancy between<br>the law made by the Parliament and State law<br>and rendering that repugnancy inconsequential<br>upon procurement of Presidential assent. In this<br>case, the State legislature duly passed the 2019<br>Act (State law) on a subject of the concurrent list<br>in the presence of a law made by the Parliament<br>(2013 Act) and obtained the assent of the<br>President to the same on 02.12.2019 after duly<br>placing the State law before the President and<br>duly stating the reason for reserving it for his<br>assent. A priori, we hold that this is in<br>compliance of Article 254(2).
50. This understanding of Article 254(2) is well<br>settled and reference can be usefully made to the<br>following paragraph of Pt. Rishikesh40:
“15. Clause (2) of Article 254 is an<br>exception to clause (1). If law made<br>by the State Legislature is reserved<br>for consideration and receives
53
assent of the President though the<br>State law is inconsistent with the<br>Central Act, the law made by the<br>Legislature of the State prevails over<br>the Central law and operates in that<br>State as valid law. If Parliament<br>amends the law, after the amendment<br>made by the State Legislature has<br>received the assent of the President,<br>the earlier amendment made by the<br>State Legislature, if found inconsistent<br>with the Central amended law, both<br>Central law and the State Law cannot<br>coexist without colliding with each<br>other. Repugnancy thereby arises and<br>to the extent of the repugnancy the<br>State law becomes void under Article<br>254(1) unless the State Legislature<br>again makes law reserved for the<br>consideration of the President and<br>receives the assent of the President.<br>Full Bench of the High Court held that<br>since U.P. Act 57 of 1976 received the<br>assent of the President on 30­12­1976,<br>while the Central Act was assented on<br>9­9­1976, the U.P. Act made by the<br>State Legislature, later in point of time<br>it is a valid law.”
(emphasis supplied)
51. The petitioners have advanced lengthy<br>arguments as to how the 2019 Act is repugnant<br>to the 2013 Act. We are constrained to observe<br>that the whole exercise of pointing out any<br>repugnancy after a validating Act has obtained<br>the assent of the President is otiose. For, the<br>whole purpose of Article 254(2) is to resuscitate<br>and operationalize a repugnant Act or repugnant<br>provisions in such Act. For, the Constitution
54 provides concurrent powers to the states as well on subjects falling in List­III. After duly complying with the requirements of Article 254(2), the Court is   left   with   nothing   to   achieve   by   identifying repugnancy between the laws because the same has   already   been   identified,   accepted   and validated as per the sanction of the Constitution under   Article   254(2).   To   indulge   in   such   an exercise would be intuitive. Moreover, the Court ought not to nullify a law made in compliance with   Article   254(2)   on   the   sole   ground   of repugnancy. For, repugnancy, in such cases, is said   to   have   been   constitutionalized.   To   put   it differently, the very purpose of engaging in the exercise,   in   terms   of   clause   (2)   of   Article   254, presupposes   existence   of   repugnancy   and   is intended   to   overcome   such   repugnancy. Therefore, the endeavour of the petitioners in the present   matter   to   highlight   repugnancy,   is misdirected, flimsy and inconsequential.” 68. As   such,   once   the   State   Act   was   reserved   for consideration   and   received   the   assent   of   the   President   of India,   it   would   prevail.     Once   that   is   the   position,   any endeavour   to   find   out   any   repugnancy   between   the   two, would be futile.  No doubt, that it is sought to be urged on behalf of the appellants that there is no repugnancy between the   State   Act  and   the   Central   Act  and   that   applying   the principle of harmonization, both can exist.  We find that in 55 view of the State Act receiving the Presidential assent, it will not be necessary to consider the said issue.  69. It   is   next   sought   to   be   urged   on   behalf   of   the respondents   that   the   State   Act   is   essentially   within   the legislative competence of the Union.  It is submitted by the respondents   that   the   State   legislation   is   with   respect   to Entries 12, 13, 14 and 37 of List I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India and as such, exclusively within the competence of the Central Legislation.  Entry 12 deals with United   Nations   Organization.   Entry   13   deals   with participation in international conferences, associations and other bodies and implementing of decisions made thereat. Entry 14 deals with entering into treaties and agreements with   foreign   countries   and   implementing   of   treaties, agreements and conventions with foreign countries.   Entry 37 deals with foreign loans. 70. It   will   be   apposite   to   refer   to   the   following observations   of   the   Constitution   Bench   in   the   case   of (supra).  In the said Kesoram Industries Ltd. and Others  56 case, R.C. Lahoti, J., speaking for the majority, has observed thus:
31.Article 245 of the Constitution is the
fountain source of legislative power. It provides —
subject to the provisions of this Constitution,
Parliament may make laws for the whole or any
part of the territory of India, and the legislature of
a State may make laws for the whole or any part
of the State. The legislative field between
Parliament and the legislature of any State is
divided by Article 246 of the Constitution.
Parliament has exclusive power to make laws
with respect to any of the matters enumerated in
List I in the Seventh Schedule, called the “Union
List”. Subject to the said power of Parliament, the
legislature of any State has power to make laws
with respect to any of the matters enumerated in
List III, called the “Concurrent List”. Subject to
the abovesaid two, the legislature of any State
has exclusive power to make laws with respect to
any of the matters enumerated in List II, called
the “State List”. Under Article 248 the exclusive
power of Parliament to make laws extends to any
matter not enumerated in the Concurrent List or
State List. The power of making any law imposing
a tax not mentioned in the Concurrent List or
State List vests in Parliament. This is what is
called the residuary power vesting in Parliament.
The principles have been succinctly summarised
and restated by a Bench of three learned Judges
of this Court on a review of the available decision
inHoechst Pharmaceuticals Ltd.v.State of
Bihar[(1983) 4 SCC 45 : 1983 SCC (Tax) 248] .
They are:
( 1 ) The various entries in the three lists are   not   “powers”   of   legislation   but “fields” of legislation. The Constitution effects   a   complete   separation   of   the 57 taxing power of the Union and of the States under Article 246.  There is no overlapping   anywhere   in   the   taxing power   and   the   Constitution   gives independent sources of taxation to the Union and the States . ( 2 ) In spite of the fields of legislation having been demarcated, the question of   repugnancy   between   law   made   by Parliament   and   a   law   made   by   the State   Legislature   may   arise   only   in cases   when   both   the   legislations occupy the same field with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List and a direct conflict is seen. If there is a repugnancy due to overlapping   found   between   List   II   on the one hand and List I and List III on the other, the State law will be ultra vires and shall have to give way to the Union law. ( 3Taxation   is   considered   to   be   a distinct   matter   for   purposes   of legislative   competence .   There   is   a distinction   made   between   general subjects   of   legislation   and   taxation. The general subjects of legislation are dealt with in one group of entries and power   of   taxation   in   a   separate group.  The   power   to   tax   cannot   be deduced from a general legislative entry as an ancillary power . ( 4 ) The entries in the lists being merely topics or fields of legislation, they must receive a liberal construction inspired by a broad and generous spirit and not in a narrow pedantic sense. The words and expressions employed in drafting the entries must be given the widest­ 58 possible   interpretation.   This   is because, to quote V. Ramaswami, J., the   allocation   of   the   subjects   to   the lists   is   not   by   way   of   scientific   or logical   definition   but   by   way   of   a mere  simplex   enumeratio  of   broad categories.  A   power   to   legislate   as   to the   principal   matter   specifically mentioned   in   the   entry   shall   also include   within   its   expanse   the legislations   touching   incidental   and ancillary matters . ( 5 ) Where the legislative competence of the   legislature   of   any   State   is questioned   on   the   ground   that   it encroaches   upon   the   legislative competence   of   Parliament   to   enact   a law,   the   question   one   has   to   ask   is whether the legislation relates to any of the entries in List I or III. If it does, no further   question   need   be   asked   and Parliament's   legislative   competence must be upheld. Where there are three lists   containing   a   large   number   of entries,   there   is   bound   to   be   some overlapping   among   them.   In   such   a situation   the   doctrine   of   pith   and substance   has   to   be   applied   to determine   as   to   which   entry   does   a given piece of legislation relate. Once it is   so   determined,   any   incidental trenching on the field reserved to the other legislature is of no consequence. The court has to look at the substance of the matter. The doctrine of pith and substance   is   sometimes   expressed   in terms   of   ascertaining   the   true character   of   legislation.   The   name given   by   the   legislature   to   the 59
(6) The doctrine of occupied field<br>applies only when there is a clash<br>between the Union and the State Lists<br>within an area common to both. There<br>the doctrine of pith and substance is to<br>be applied and if the impugned<br>legislation substantially falls within the<br>power expressly conferred upon the<br>legislature which enacted it, an<br>incidental encroaching in the field<br>assigned to another legislature is to be<br>ignored. While reading the three lists,<br>List I has priority over Lists III and II<br>and List III has priority over List II.<br>However, still, the predominance of the<br>Union List would not prevent the State<br>Legislature from dealing with any<br>matter within List II though it may<br>incidentally affect any item in List I.
(emphasis supplied)
It could thus be seen that the Constitution Bench 71. has  held   that   when  the   legislative   competence   of   a  State Legislature is questioned on the ground that it encroaches upon   the   legislative   competence   of   the   Parliament,   since some   entries   are   bound   to   be   overlapping,   in   such   a situation,   the   doctrine   of   pith   and   substance   has   to   be 60 applied to determine as to which entry does a given piece of legislation relate to. Once it is so determined,  any incidental trenching on the field reserved to the other legislature is of no consequence. The court has to look at the substance of
the matter.The true character of the legislation has to be
ascertained.   Regard must be had to the enactment as a whole, to its main objects and to the scope and effect of its provisions. It has been held that incidental and superficial encroachments are to be disregarded.  It has been held that the predominance of the Union List would not prevent the State Legislature from dealing with any matter within List II, though it may incidentally affect any item in List I. 72. If we look at the scheme of the State enactment, the subject matter of the enactment is arbitration.  As has been held   by   the   Constitution   Bench   in   the   case   of   Kesoram Industries   Ltd.   and   Others   (supra),   if   the   State   is competent   to   legislate   on   the   subject,   any   incidental encroachment on any item in List I would not affect the State Legislature.   In any case, as already observed hereinabove, this Court, in the cases of   G.C. Kanungo   (supra) and   MP 61 Rural 2018 , has specifically held that the 1940 Act, the 1996 Act and the State Acts legislated by the Orissa and M.P. Legislatures   are   referable   to   Entry   13   of   List   III   of   the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.  As such, in view of the Presidential assent under clause (2) of Article 254 of   the   Constitution   of   India,   the   State   Legislature   would prevail.  73. Shri Venugopal, learned Senior Counsel has strongly relied on paragraphs 234, 238, 239 and 293 in the case of Kesoram Industries Ltd. and Others  (supra), in support of the proposition that the State Act is not within the legislative competence of the State Legislature, which read thus: “  The   Constitution­makers   found   the   need 234. for power­sharing devices between the Centre and the State having regard to the imperatives of the State's security and stability and, thus, propelled the thrust towards centralisation by using non obstante clause under Article 246 so as to see that the federal supremacy is achieved. ………….. 238.  It can be seen that Article 253 contains non obstante   clause.   Article   253,   thus,   operates notwithstanding   anything   contained   in   Article 245 and Article 246. Article 246 confers power on Parliament to enact laws with respect to matters 62 enumerated in List I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution. Entries 10 to 21 of List I of the Seventh Schedule pertain to international law. In making   any   law   under   any   of   these   entries, Parliament is required to keep Article 51 in mind. 239.  Article 253 of the Constitution provides that while   giving   effect   to   an   international   treaty, Parliament   assumes   the   role   of   the   State Legislature and once the same is done the power of the State is denuded. …………. 293.  Parliament   in   enacting   the   Tea   Act   has exercised   its   superior   power   in   the   matter   in terms of Article 253 of the Constitution of India. Such   superior   power   in   certain   situations   can also be exercised in terms of Entry 33 List III as also   overriding   powers   of   Parliament   during national   emergency   including   those   under Articles   249,   250,   251   and   252   of   the Constitution of India. (See  ITC Ltd.  [(2002) 9 SCC 232])” 74. It is to be noted that the aforesaid paragraphs are from the minority view expressed by Sinha, J.  As such, the view expressed by the learned Judge, contrary to the majority judgment in the Constitution Bench, would not support the case of the respondents any further.  UNCITRAL   MODEL   LAW   ­   A   DECISION   OR RECOMMENDATION? : 63 75. That leaves us to consider the contention on behalf of   the   respondents   that   the   1996   Act   is   enacted   by   the Parliament under Article 253 of the Constitution of India and since the said Act has been enacted in accordance with the decision taken at the international conference to implement the   UNCITRAL   Model   law,   the   State   Legislature   is   not competent to enact the State Law. 76. It is submitted that since the 1996 Act has been enacted in accordance with the decision taken by the General Assembly of the United Nations, the same would be referable to Article 253 of the Constitution of India.   77. In this respect, it is to be noted that the Preamble of the 1996 Act would reveal that the recommendation of the General   Assembly   of   the   United   Nations   is   for   adopting UNCITRAL Model Law  insofar as  international  commercial arbitrations are concerned.  It will further be relevant to refer to paragraphs (2) and (3) of the Statement of Objects and Reasons of the 1996 Act: “ Statement of Objects and Reasons 1. …………… 64 2.   The   United   Nations   Commission   on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) adopted in 1985 the Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration.  The General Assembly of the United Nations has recommended that all countries give due consideration to the said Model Law, in view of   the   desirability   of   uniformity   of   the   law   of arbitral   procedures   and   the   specific   needs   of international   commercial   arbitration   practice. The UNCITRAL also adopted din 1980 a set of Conciliation Rules.  The General Assembly of the United   Nations   has   recommended   the   use   of these Rules in cases where the disputes arise in the context of international commercial relations and the parties seek amicable settlement of their disputes   by   recourse   to   conciliation.     An important feature of the said UNCITRAL Model Law   and   Rules   is   that   they   have   harmonized concepts   on   arbitration   and   conciliation   of different   legal   systems   of   the   world   and   thus contain   provisions   which   are   designed   for universal application. 3.   Though  the   said  UNCITRAL  Model  Law  and Rules   are   intended   to   deal   with   international commercial   arbitration   and   conciliation,   they could, with appropriate modifications, serve as a model for legislation on domestic arbitration and conciliation.  The present Bill seeks to consolidate and   amend   the   law   relating   to   domestic arbitration, international commercial arbitration, enforcement   of   foreign   arbitral   awards   and   to define the law relating to conciliation, taking into account   the   said   UNCITRAL   Model   Law   and Rules. …………” 65 78. A   perusal   thereof   would   clearly   reveal   that   the General Assembly of the United Nations has recommended that all countries give due consideration to the UNCITRAL Model Law, in view of the desirability of uniformity of the law of arbitral procedures and the specific needs of international commercial arbitration practices are concerned.   79. It   could   thus   be   seen   that   there   is   no   binding decision at the General Assembly of the United Nations to implement   the   UNCITRAL   Model   Law.   In   any   case,   that recommendation   is   with   regard   to   only   international commercial   arbitration   practices.   No   doubt   that   the Parliament,   with   certain   modifications,   has   given   due consideration to the UNCITRAL Model Law for legislation on the domestic arbitration.   However, that cannot by itself be said to be binding on the Parliament to enact the law in accordance with UNCITRAL Model Law. 80. It   will   also   be   relevant   to   refer   to   the   Resolution th dated   11   December   1985   passed   by   the   United   Nations General Assembly, which reads thus: 66 “ 40/72. Model   Law   on   International Commercial   Arbitration   of   the United   Nations   Commission   on International Trade Law The General Assembly, Recognizing  the value of arbitration as a method of   settling   disputes   arising   in   international commercial relations, Convinced  that the establishment of a model law on arbitration that is acceptable to States with different   legal,   social   and   economic   systems contributes   to   the   development   of   harmonious international economic relations, Noting   that   the   Model   law   on   International Commercial   Arbitration   was   adopted   by   the United   Nations   Commission   on   International Trade   Law   at   its   eighteenth   session,   after   due deliberation   and   extensive   consultation   with arbitral   institutions   and   individual   experts   on international commercial arbitration, Convinced  that the Model Law, together with the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of   Foreign   Arbitral   Awards   and   the   Arbitration Rules   of   the   United   Nations   Commission   on International   Trade   Law   recommended   by   the General Assembly in its resolution 31/98 of 15 December 1976, significantly contributes to the establishment of a unified legal framework for the fair and efficient settlement of disputes arising in international commercial relations, 1.  Requests  the Secretary­General to transmit the text   of   the   Modern   Law   on   International Commercial   Arbitration   of   the   United   Nations Commission on International Trade Law, together with   the   travaux   preparatoires   from   the eighteenth   session   of   the   Commission,   to 67 Governments   and   to   arbitral   institutions   and other   interested   bodies,   such   as   chambers   of commerce; 2.     that   all   States   give   due Recommends consideration   to   the   Model   Law   on International Commercial Arbitration, in view of the desirability of uniformity of the law of arbitral procedures and the specific needs of international   commercial   arbitration practice .”   [emphasis supplied] 81. A perusal of the aforesaid Resolution would clearly reveal   that   what   has   been   done   by   the   United   Nations General   Assembly   vide   the   aforesaid   Resolution   is   to recommend to all the States to give due consideration to the Model   Law   on   international   commercial   arbitration. However, a perusal of the Resolution itself would reveal that it does not create any binding obligation on the States to enact the UNCITRAL Model Law as it is. 82. Shri Venugopal, in support of his contention, has strongly relied on the following observations of this Court in the case of  (supra):  S. Jagannath 48.  At this stage we may deal with a question which   has   incidentally   come   up   for   our consideration.   Under   para   2   of   the   CRZ 68
Notification, the activities listed thereunder are<br>declared as prohibited activities. Various State<br>Governments have enacted coastal aquaculture<br>legislations regulating the industries set up in the<br>coastal areas. It was argued before us that certain<br>provisions of the State legislations including that<br>of the State of Tamil Nadu are not in consonance<br>with the CRZ Notification issued by the<br>Government of India under Section 3(3) of the<br>Act. Assuming that be so, we are of the view that<br>the Act being a Central legislation has the<br>overriding effect. The Act (the Environment<br>Protection Act, 1986) has been enacted under<br>Entry 13 of List I Schedule VII of the Constitution<br>of India. The said entry is as under:
“Participation in international<br>conferences, assessment and other<br>bodies and implementing of decisions<br>made thereat.”
The preamble to the Act clearly states that it was<br>enacted to implement the decisions taken at the<br>United Nations' Conference on the Human<br>Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972.<br>Parliament has enacted the Act under Entry 13 of<br>List I Schedule VII read with Article 253 of the<br>Constitution of India. The CRZ Notification having<br>been issued under the Act shall have overriding<br>effect and shall prevail over the law made by the<br>legislatures of the States.”
83. Shri   Venugopal   further   relied   on   the   following observations of this Court in the case of   Mantri Techzone (supra): Private Limited 
40.The Tribunal has been established under a
constitutional mandate provided in Schedule VII
69
List I Entry 13 of the Constitution of India, to
implement the decision taken at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and
Development. The Tribunal is a specialised
judicial body for effective and expeditious
disposal of cases relating to environmental
protection and conservation of forests and other
natural resources including enforcement of any
legal right relating to environment. The right to
healthy environment has been construed as a
part of the right to life under Article 21 by way of
judicial pronouncements. Therefore, the Tribunal
has special jurisdiction for enforcement of
environmental rights.”
84. At this juncture, it will be relevant to note that the Preamble   to   the   Environment   (Protection)   Act,   1986 (hereinafter referred to as the “1986 Act”) would itself reveal that   it   refers   to   the   decision   taken   at   United   Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in June   1972,   in   which   India   participated   and   wherein,   a decision   was   taken   to   take   appropriate   steps   for   the protection   and   improvement   of   human   environment.     It further states that it was considered necessary to implement the decisions aforesaid insofar as they relate to the protection and   improvement   of   environment   and   the   prevention   of hazards to human beings and other living creatures.  So also, 70 the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 (hereinafter referred to as the “NGT Act”) refers to India being a party to the decision taken   at   the   United   Nations   Conference   on   the   Human Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972, in which India had participated and the decisions were taken to call upon the States to take appropriate steps for the protection and improvement of human environment.  It further refers to the decision   taken   at   the   United   Nations   Conference   on Environment   and   Development   held   at   Rio   de   Janeiro   in June 1992, in which India had participated.  The States were called   upon   to   provide   effective   access   to   judicial   and administrative   proceedings   including   redress   and   remedy, and   to   develop   national   laws   regarding   liability   and compensation   for   the   victims   of   pollution   and   other environment   damage.     It   further   observes   that   it   is considered expedient to implement the decision taken at the aforesaid conferences.  It is thus clear that whereas, the 1986 Act and the 85. NGT   Act   have   been   enacted   specifically   to   implement   the decisions taken at the international conferences, the 1996 71 Act is enacted on the basis of the Resolution passed by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1985, whereby the   General   Assembly   only   recommended   the   adoption   of UNCITRAL Model Law  insofar as  international  commercial arbitration practices are concerned.  As such, the 1986 Act and the NGT Act are directly referable to Entry 13 of List I of the Seventh Schedule and Article 253 of the Constitution of India.  Therefore, reliance on the above referred judgments, in our view, would not be of any assistance to the case of the respondents,   inasmuch   as   the   Resolution   of   the   General Assembly of the United Nations is only recommendatory in nature and there is no binding decision taken thereat.  STATE   LEGISLATURE’S   ENCROACHMENT   ON JUDICIAL POWERS: 86. We next consider the finding of the High Court that since the State Act, in effect, annuls the awards passed by the Arbitrators and/or the judgments or decrees passed by the   courts,   it   will   amount   to   encroachment   on   judicial 72 powers of the courts and as such, is hit by the doctrine of separation of powers.   87. A perusal of the list containing details of the Kerala arbitration   cases   involved   in   the   present   matters   would reveal that in most of the cases, the awards were passed prior to the year 1992 and the awards were made rule of the court prior to the year 1993.  In some of the matters, on the date of the enactment of the State Act, the appeals preferred by the State under Section 39 of the 1940 Act were pending before the competent courts.   88. The appellants have heavily relied on the judgment of this Court in the case of  (supra), wherein G.C. Kanungo  this Court has observed thus: “ 15.  What   is   of   importance   and   requires   our examination is, whether such court when makes an award   of   the   Special   Arbitration   Tribunal   filed before   it,   a  “Rule  of   Court”  by   its  judgment   and decree,   as   provided   under   Section   17   of   the Principal   Act,   does   such   award   of   the   Special Arbitration   Tribunal   merge   in   the   judgment   and decree, as argued on behalf of the petitioners. We find   it  difficult   to   accede   to   the   argument.   What cannot be overlooked is, that the award of a Special Arbitration   Tribunal,   as   that   of   an   award   of   an arbitrator,   is,   as   we   have   already   pointed   out,   a 73 decision made by it on the claim or cause referred for its decision by way of arbitral dispute. When the court makes such award  of a  Special Arbitration Tribunal a “Rule of Court” by means of its judgment and decree, it is not deciding the claim or cause as it would have done, if it had come before it as a suit for its judgment and decree in the course of exercise of its ordinary civil jurisdiction. Indeed, when such award is made to come by a party to the dispute before court for being made a “Rule of Court” by its judgment and decree, it is to obtain the superadded seal of the court for such award, as provided for under   the   Principal   Act,   to   make   it   enforceable against the other party through the machinery of court. Therefore, the judgment and decree rendered by the civil court in respect of an award is merely to superadd its seal thereon for making such award enforceable through the mechanism available with it for enforcement of its own judgments and decrees. The mere fact that such judgments or decrees of courts by which the awards of Special Arbitration Tribunals are made “Rules of Court” or are affirmed by   judgments   and   decrees   of   superior   courts   in appeals,   revisions   or   the   like,   cannot   make   the awards the   decisions  of   courts.  Hence,  when the awards of Special Arbitration Tribunals are made by the   judgments   and   decrees   of   court,   “Rules   of Court”   for   enforcing   them   through   its   execution process,   they   (the   awards)   do   not   merge   in   the judgments and decrees of courts, as would make them the decisions of court. The legal position as to non­merger of awards in judgments and decrees of courts, which we have stated, receives support from certain observations in the decision of this Court in  Satish   Kumar  v.  Surinder   Kumar  [(1969)   2   SCR 244 : AIR 1970 SC 833] . There, this Court was confronted   with   the   question,   whether   an   award 74 made   by   an   arbitrator   which   had   become unenforceable   for   want   of   registration   under   the Registration   Act,   ceased   to   be   a   decision   of   the arbitrator, which binds the parties or their privies. In that context, this Court observed that an award is   entitled   to   that   respect   which   is   due   to   the judgment and decree of last resort. And if the award which   had   been   pronounced   between   the   parties has become final, a second reference of the subject of   the   award   becomes   incompetent.   It   further observed that if the award is final and binding on the parties, it can hardly be said that it is a waste paper unless it is made a “Rule of Court”. Hegde, J. who agreed with the above observations of Sikri, J. (as   his   Lordship   then   was)   while   speaking   for Bachawat, J. also observed that the arbitration has the  first stage  which commences with arbitration agreement and ends with the making of the award, and   then   a   second   stage   which   relates   to   the enforcement of the award. He also observed that it was one thing to say that a right is not created by the award but it is an entirely different thing to say that the right created cannot be enforced without further steps. 16.  Therefore, our answer to the point is that the awards   of   Special   Arbitration   Tribunals   did   not merge in judgments and decrees of the courts even though the courts by their judgments and decrees made   such   awards   “Rules   of   Court”   for   their enforceability   through   the   courts   availing   their machinery   used   for   execution   of   their   decisions, that is, their own judgments and decrees. 17.  It is true, as argued on behalf of the petitioners, that a legislature has no legislative power to render ineffective the earlier judicial decisions by making a law   which   simply   declares   the   earlier   judicial decisions as invalid or not binding, for such power if 75
exercised would not be a legislative power exercised<br>by it but a judicial power exercised by it<br>encroaching upon the judicial power of the State<br>exclusively vested in courts. The said argument<br>advanced, since represents the correct and well­<br>settled position in law, we have thought it<br>unnecessary to refer to the decisions of this Court<br>cited by learned counsel for the petitioners, in that<br>behalf and hence have not referred to them.
18.For the 1991 Amendment Act to become
unconstitutional on the ground that it has
rendered judgments and decrees of courts by
which the Special Arbitration Tribunals' awards
are made “Rules of Court”, invalid or ineffective,
such judgments and decrees must be decisions
of courts rendered by them in exercise of their
judicial power of decision­making in respect of
the subjects of dispute before them and not
where they render judgments and decrees to
make the awards of the Special Arbitration
Tribunals “Rules of Court” so that they could be
made enforceable through the machinery of
courts. Thus, the awards of the Special
Arbitration Tribunals when get the superadded
seals of courts for such awards, by the courts
making them “Rules of Court” by their
judgments and decrees, such awards do not get
merged in judgments and decrees of courts so as
to make them the decisions of courts, rendered
in exercise of State's judicial power of decision­
making, as it happens in the causes directly
brought before them by way of suits for their
decisions.As we have already pointed out, question
of claim or cause of a party which gets merged in
the award of a Special Arbitration Tribunal, in turn,
getting merged in judgment and decree made by
civil court, for the purpose of making the award a
76
“Rule of Court”, so as to make it enforceable, cannot
arise. What needs to be noted is, that courts even if
render their judgments and decrees for making the
awards “Rules of Court”, those judgments and
decrees cannot substitute their own decisions for
the decisions of Special Arbitration Tribunals
contained in their awards. This situation makes it
clear that power exercised by the civil courts in
making the awards of Special Arbitration Tribunals
“Rules of Court” by their judgments and decrees is
not their judicial power exercised in rendering
judgments and decrees, as civil courts exercise their
powers vested in them for resolving disputes
between parties.To be precise, judgments and
decrees made by civil courts in making the
awards of the Special Arbitration Tribunals the
“Rules of Court” for the sole purpose of their
enforceability through the machinery of court,
cannot make such judgments and decrees of
civil court, the decisions rendered by civil courts
in exercise of judicial power of the State
exclusively invested in them under our
Constitution.Thus, when the judgments and
decrees made by civil courts in making the awards
of Special Arbitration Tribunals “Rules of Court” are
not those judgments and decrees of courts made in
exercise of judicial power of State vested in them
under our Constitution, the 1991 Amendment Act
when nullifies the judgments and decrees of courts
by which awards of Special Arbitration Tribunals
are made “Rules of Court”, cannot be regarded as
that enacted by the Orissa State Legislature
encroaching upon the judicial powers of State
exercisable under our Constitution by courts as
sentinels of Rule of Law, a basic feature of our
Constitution. Hence, the 1991 Amendment Act
insofar as it nullifies judgments and decrees of
courts by which awards of Special Arbitration
Tribunals are made “Rules of Court”, even where
77
they are affirmed by higher courts, cannot be
regarded as that made by the Orissa State
Legislature transgressing upon the judicial power of
State vested in courts as would make it
unconstitutional.”
[emphasis supplied]
[emphasis supplied]
89. It could be seen that this Court has observed that<br>the judgments and decrees made by the civil courts in<br>making the awards of the Special Arbitration Tribunals the<br>“Rules of Court” are for the sole purpose of their<br>enforceability through the machinery of courts and therefore,<br>cannot be such judgments and decrees of civil courts made<br>in exercise of the judicial power of the State exclusively<br>vested in them under the Constitution of India. This Court,<br>therefore, held that the 1991 Amendment Act, which nullifies<br>the judgments and decrees of the court by which awards of<br>Special Arbitration Tribunals are made “Rules of Court”,<br>cannot be said to be an encroachment upon the judicial<br>powers of the State exercisable by the courts under the<br>Constitution of India.
90. However, it is to be noted that in the very same<br>judgment, this Court observed thus:
78
28.Thus, the impugned 1991 Amendment Act
seeks to nullify the awards made by the Special
Arbitration Tribunals constituted under the 1984
Amendment Act, in exercise of the power conferred
upon them by that Act itself. When the awards
made under the 1984 Amendment Act by the
Special Arbitration Tribunals in exercise of the
State's judicial power conferred upon them which
cannot be regarded as those merged in Rules of
Court or judgments and decrees of courts, are
sought to be nullified by the 1991 Amendment Act,
it admits of no doubt that legislative power of the
State Legislature is used by enacting the impugned
1991 Amendment Act to nullify or abrogate the
awards of the Special Arbitration Tribunals by
arrogating to itself, a judicial power. [SeeCauvery
Water Disputes Tribunal, Re[1993 Supp (1) SCC 96
(2) : AIR 1992 SC 522 : 1991 Supp (2) SCR 497] ].
From this, it follows that the State Legislature by
enacting the 1991 Amendment Act has encroached
upon the judicial power entrusted to judicial
authority resulting in infringement of a basic
feature of the Constitution — the Rule of Law.
Thus, when the 1991 Amendment Act nullifies
the awards of the Special Arbitration Tribunals,
made in exercise of the judicial power conferred
upon them under the 1984 Amendment Act, by
encroaching upon the judicial power of the
State, we have no option but to declare it as
unconstitutional having regard to the well­
settled and undisputed legal position that a
legislature has no legislative power to render
ineffective the earlier judicial decisions by
making a law which simply declares the earlier
judicial decisions as invalid and not binding, for
such powers, if exercised, would not be
legislative power exercised by it, but judicial
power exercised by it encroaching upon the
79
judicial power of the State vested in a judicial
tribunal as the Special Arbitration Tribunal
under the 1984 Amendment Act. Moreover,
where the arbitral awards sought to be nullified
under the 1991 Amendment Act are those made
by Special Arbitration Tribunals constituted by
the State itself under the 1984 Amendment Act
to decide arbitral disputes to which State was a
party, it cannot be permitted to undo such
arbitral awards which have gone against it, by
having recourse to its legislative power for grant
of such permission as could result in allowing
the State, if nothing else, abuse of its power of
legislation.
[emphasis supplied]
[emphasis supplied]
91. The   court   further   held   that   under   the   1984 Amendment   Act,   the   Special   Arbitration   Tribunals   were constituted by the State itself to decide arbitral disputes.  It held that the State was a party before such Tribunals and therefore,   it   cannot   be   permitted   to   undo   such   arbitral awards which had gone against it.   It further held that if such an exercise is permitted to be done, by having recourse to its legislative power, it would result in nothing else but   allowing the State, abuse of its power of legislation.  80 92. The Court goes on to hold that the awards made under the 1984 Amendment Act by the Special Arbitration Tribunals are sought to be nullified by the 1991 Amendment Act.  As such, the legislative power of the State Legislature is used   by   enacting   the   impugned   1991   Amendment   Act   to nullify   or   abrogate   the   awards   of   the   Special   Arbitration Tribunals by abrogating to itself a judicial power.   In this respect, the Court relied on the judgment of this Court in the 41 case of   .   This Court Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal further goes on to hold that the State Legislature by enacting the 1991 Amendment Act has encroached upon the judicial power vested in judicial authorities and as such, infringed the basic feature of the Constitution of India the “Rule of Law”.  As such, this Court held the 1991 Amendment Act to be unconstitutional on the ground that the arbitral awards passed by the Special Arbitration Tribunals under the 1984 Amendment   Act   are   sought   to   be   nullified   by   the   1991 Amendment Act. 41 1993 Supp (1) SCC 96 (2) 81 93. A perusal of the aforesaid observations made in the case   of   (supra)   would   reveal   that   on   one G.C.   Kanungo   hand, this Court goes on to hold that the judgments and decrees by which the civil courts make the awards “Rules of Court” are not passed in exercise of its judicial powers.  As such, the awards do not   merge   in the judgments and decrees of the court.   But on the other hand, the Court goes on to hold   that   the   awards   passed   by   the   Special   Arbitration Tribunals are the awards passed by the Tribunals exercising the judicial power and as such, when the State nullifies such awards, it abrogates to itself a judicial power and the Statute which annuls it, is unconstitutional being encroachment on the judicial power of the State. Since  (supra) has ultimately held the 94. G.C. Kanungo  1991 Amendment Act to be unconstitutional on the ground that it annuls the awards passed by the Special Arbitration Tribunals, it may not be necessary to consider the question as to whether   (supra) was right in holding G.C. Kanungo   that the judgments and decrees vide which the awards are made “Rules of Court”, are not passed in exercise of judicial 82 power.  However, the perusal of paragraph 17 in the case of G.C. Kanungo  (supra) would reveal that this Court recorded the submissions made on behalf of the petitioners therein that,   a   Legislature   has   no   legislative   power   to   render ineffective   the   earlier   judicial   decisions   by   making   a   law which simply declares the earlier judicial decisions as invalid or not binding.   It also recorded that if such a power  is exercised, it will not be legislative power exercised by it but a judicial power, encroaching upon the judicial power of the State exclusively vested in courts.   It further appears that various decisions of this Court were cited by the counsel for the petitioners therein, however, this Court did not find it necessary   to   refer   to   the   said   decisions,   since   this   Court found   that   the   said   submissions   represent   a   correct   and well­settled position in law.  It will be worthwhile to note that in the said case, this Court was considering the provisions of the 1940 Act as against the provisions of the Orissa State Act.   In the present case also, all the awards so also the judgments and decrees passed by the civil courts making such awards “Rules of Court” have been passed under the 83 1940 Act.   We, therefore, find that it will be appropriate to examine the correctness of the said finding.   95. It will be necessary to consider the scheme of the 1940 Act as will be found in Sections 15, 16, 17 and 30 thereof, which read thus:
“15. Power of Court to modify award.—The Court<br>may by order modify or correct an award—
(a) where it appears that a part of the<br>award is upon a matter not referred to<br>arbitration and such part can be<br>separated from the other part and does<br>not affect the decision on the matter<br>referred; or
(b) where the award is imperfect in form,<br>or contains any obvious error which can<br>be amended without affecting such<br>decision; or
(c) where the award contains a clerical<br>mistake or an error arising from an<br>accidental slip or omission.
16. Power to remit award.—(1) The Court may<br>from time to time remit the award or any matter<br>referred to arbitration to the arbitrators or umpire<br>for reconsideration upon such terms as it thinks fit<br>—
(a) where the award has left<br>undetermined any of the matters referred<br>to arbitration, or where it determines any<br>matter not referred to arbitration and<br>such matter cannot be separated without<br>affecting the determination of the matters<br>referred; or
84
(b) where the award is so indefinite as to<br>be incapable of execution; or
(c) where an objection to the legality of<br>the award is apparent upon the face of it.
(2) Where an award is remitted under sub­section<br>(1) the Court shall fix the time within which the<br>arbitrator or umpire shall submit his decision to the<br>Court:
Provided that any time so fixed may be extended by<br>subsequent order of the Court.
(3) An award remitted under sub­section (1) shall<br>become void on the failure of the arbitrator or<br>umpire to reconsider it and submit his decision<br>within the time fixed.
17. Judgment in terms of award.—Where the<br>Court sees no cause to remit the award or any of<br>the matters referred to arbitration for<br>reconsideration or to set aside the award, the Court<br>shall, after the time for making an application to set<br>aside the award has expired, or such application<br>having been made, after refusing it, proceed to<br>pronounce judgment according to the award, and<br>upon the judgment so pronounced a decree shall<br>follow, and no appeal shall lie from such decree<br>except on the ground that it is in excess of, or not<br>otherwise in accordance with the award.
……………..
30. Grounds for setting aside award.— An award<br>shall not be set aside except on one or more of the<br>following grounds, namely—
(a) that an arbitrator or umpire has<br>misconducted himself or the proceedings;
(b) that an award has been made after the<br>issue of an order by the Court<br>superseding the arbitration or after
85 arbitration   proceedings   have   become invalid under Section 35; ( )   that   an   award   has   been   improperly c procured or is otherwise invalid.” 96. A perusal of Section 15 of the 1940 Act would reveal that the court, by an order, may modify or correct an award, where it appears that a part of the award is upon a matter not referred to arbitration and such part can be separated from the other part and does not affect the decision on the matter referred.   The Court may also modify or correct the award, where the award  is imperfect in form, or contains any obvious error which can be amended without affecting such decision.  The power under Section 15 of the 1940 Act could also   be   exercised,   where   the   award   contains   a   clerical mistake   or   an   error   arising   from   an   accidental   slip   or omission. 97. Section 16 of the 1940 Act empowers the court to remit the award or any matter referred to arbitration to the arbitrators or umpire for reconsideration, where it finds that the award has left undetermined any of the matters referred 86 to arbitration, or where it determines any matter not referred to arbitration and such matter cannot be separated without affecting the determination of the matters referred.   Such power can also be exercised, where the award is so indefinite as to be incapable of execution. So also, where an objection to the legality of the award is apparent upon the face of it, the court would be empowered to remit the award. 98. Section 30 of the 1940 Act provides the grounds on which an award could be set aside.   It provides that the award could be set aside when an arbitrator or umpire has misconducted himself or the proceedings.   It could be set aside when it is found that the award has been made after the   issue   of   an   order   by   the   Court   superseding   the arbitration   or   after   arbitration   proceedings   have   become invalid under Section 35.  The award could also be set aside when the court finds that the award has been improperly procured or is otherwise invalid. 99. Section 17 of the 1940 Act empowers the court to pronounce a judgment according to the award, and upon the judgment so pronounced a decree is to follow.   It further 87 provides that no appeal shall lie on such decree except on the ground that it is in excess of, or not otherwise in accordance with,   the   award.   However,   prior   to   pronouncing   the judgment, the court is required to be satisfied that no cause to   remit   the   award   or   any   of   the   matters   referred   to arbitration for reconsideration   or to set aside the award, is made out.  The Court is also required to wait till the time for making an application to set aside the award has expired, or such application having been made, has been refused.   100. The perusal of the scheme of the 1940 Act would itself   reveal  that  the   passing   of   the   judgment  and   decree under Section 17 of the 1940 Act is not a mere formality. The judgment can be pronounced only when the court is satisfied that no cause is made out for remitting the award or setting aside the award.  The court is also entitled to remit or modify the awards.  As such, it cannot be said that the court, while passing a judgment, which is followed by a decree, does not exercise judicial power.   The court is not supposed to act mechanically and be a Post­Office.  88 101. A Constitution Bench of this Court in the case of Harinagar   Sugar   Mills   Ltd.   v.   Shyam   Sundar 42 Jhunjhunwala and Others , had an occasion to consider the scope of Section 111 of the Companies Act, 1956.  It was sought to be urged before this Court that the authority of the Central  Government  under  Section  111   of  the   Companies Act, 1956 was an administrative authority.   Rejecting the said submission, J.C. Shah, J. observed thus: “………But   that   in   an   appeal   under   Section 111 clause (3) there is a lis or dispute between the contesting parties relating to their civil rights, and the Central Government is invested with the power to determine that dispute according to law i.e. it has to   consider   and   decide   the   proposal   and   the objections in the light of the evidence, and not on grounds of policy or expediency.  The extent of the power which may be exercised  by the Central Government   is   not   delimited   by   express enactment, but the power is not on that account unrestricted.   The   power   in   appeal   to   order registration   of   transfers   has   to   be   exercised subject   to   the   limitations   similar   to   those imposed upon the exercise of the power of the court in a petition for that relief under Section 155: the restrictions which inhere the exercise of   the   power   of   the   court   also   apply   to   the exercise of the appellate power by the Central Government i.e. the Central Government has to 42 [1962] 2 SCR 339 89 decide   whether   in   exercising   their   power,   the directors are acting oppressively, capriciously or corruptly,   or   in   some   way   mala   fide.   The decision has manifestly to stand those objective tests, and has not merely to be founded on the subjective satisfaction of the authority deciding the   question.   The   authority   cannot   proceed   to decide the question posed for its determination on grounds  of  expediency: the statute empowers the Central Government to decide the disputes arising out   of   the   claims   made   by   the   transferor   or transferee which claim is opposed by the company, and   by   rendering   a   decision   upon   the   respective contentions, the rights of the contesting parties are directly affected.  Prima facie, the exercise of such authority would be judicial. It is immaterial that the statute which confers the power upon the Central Government does not expressly set out the extent of the power: but the very nature of the   jurisdiction   requires   that   it   is   to   be exercised subject to the limitations which apply to the court under Section 155.   The proviso to sub­section (8) of Section 111 clearly indicates that in   circumstances   specified   therein   reasonable compensation may be awarded in lieu of the shares. This compensation which is to be reasonable has to be   ascertained   by   the   Central   Government;   and reasonable   compensation   cannot   be   ascertained except   by   the   application   of   some   objective standards of what is just having regard to all the circumstances of the case. In   The   Province   of   Bombay  v.  Kusaldas   S. Advani  [(1950) SCR 621] this Court considered the distinction   between   decisions   quasi­judicial   and administrative   or   ministerial   for   the   purpose   of ascertaining   whether   they   are   subject   to   the 90
jurisdiction to issue a writ of certiorari, Fazl Ali, J.<br>at p. 642 observed:
“The word ‘decision’ in common parlance<br>is more or less a neutral expression and<br>it can be used with reference to purely<br>executive acts as well as judicial orders.<br>The mere fact that an executive authority<br>has to decide something does not make<br>the decision judicial. It is the manner in<br>which the decision has to be arrived at<br>which makes the difference, and the real<br>test is: Is there any duty to decide<br>judicially?”
The Court also approved of the following test<br>suggested in King v. London County Council [(1931)<br>2 KB 215, 233] by Scrutton, L.J.:
“It is not necessary that it should be a<br>court in the sense in which this Court is<br>a court; it is enough if it is exercising,<br>after hearing evidence, judicial functions<br>in the sense that it has to decide on<br>evidence between a proposal and an<br>opposition; and it is not necessary to be<br>strictly a court; if it is a tribunal which<br>has to decide rights after hearing<br>evidence and opposition, it is amenable to<br>the writ of certiorari.”
In Bharat Bank Ltd., Delhi v. Employees [(1950)<br>SCR 459] the question whether an adjudication by<br>an Industrial Tribunal functioning under the<br>Industrial Tribunals Act was subject to the<br>jurisdiction of this Court under Article 136 of the
91
Constitution fell to be determined: Mahajan, J. in<br>that case observed:
“There can be no doubt that varieties of<br>Administrative Tribunals and Domestic<br>Tribunals are known to exist in this<br>country as well as in other countries of<br>the world but the real question to decide<br>in each case is as to the extent of judicial<br>power of the State exercised by them.<br>Tribunals which do not derive authority<br>from the sovereign power cannot fall<br>within the ambit of Article 136. The<br>condition precedent for bringing a<br>tribunal within the ambit of Article 136 is<br>that it should be constituted by the State.<br>Again a tribunal would be outside the<br>ambit of Article 136 if is not invested with<br>any part of the judicial functions of the<br>State but discharges purely<br>administrative or executive duties.<br>Tribunals however which are found<br>invested with certain functions of a court<br>of justice and have some of its trappings<br>also would fall within the ambit of Article<br>136 and would be subject to the appellate<br>control of this Court whenever it is found<br>and necessary to exercise that control in<br>the interests of justice.”
It was also observed by Fazi Ali, J. at p.<br>463, that a body which is required to act<br>judicially and which exercises judicial power of<br>the State does not cease to be one exercising<br>judicial or quasi­judicial functions merely<br>because it is not expressly required to be guided<br>by any recognised substantive law in deciding<br>the disputes which come before it.
92 The   authority   of   the   Central   Government entertaining an appeal under Section 111(3) being an alternative remedy to an aggrieved party to a petition   under   Section   155   the   investiture   of authority is in the exercise of the judicial power of the State. Clause (7) of Section 111 declares the proceedings in appeal to be confidential, but that does not dispense with a judicial approach to the evidence. Under Section 54 of the Indian Income Tax   Act   (which   is   analogous)   all   particulars contained in any statement made, return furnished or   account   or   documents   produced   under   the provisions of the Act or in any evidence given, or affidavit or deposition made, in the course of any proceedings   under   the   Act   are   to   be   treated   as confidential; but that does not make the decision of the   taxing   authorities   merely   executive.   As   the dispute between the parties relates to the civil rights and the Act provides for a right of appeal and makes detailed provisions about hearing and disposal   according   to   law,   it   is   impossible   to avoid the inference that a duty is imposed upon the Central Government in deciding the appeal to act judicially .”   [emphasis supplied] 102. It has been held by this Court that the restrictions which inhere the exercise of the power of the court also apply to   the   exercise   of   the   appellate   power   by   the   Central Government.  It has been held that the Central Government has to decide whether in exercising their power, the directors 93 are acting oppressively, capriciously or corruptly, or in some way mala fide.   The decision has manifestly to stand those objective tests, and has not merely to be founded on the subjective satisfaction of the authority deciding the question. It   has   been   held   that   the   very   nature   of   the   jurisdiction requires that it is to be exercised subject to the limitations which apply to the court under Section 155 of the Companies Act, 1956. It could be seen that this Court has held that since   the   dispute   between   the   parties   relates   to   the   civil rights and the Act provides for a right of appeal and makes detailed provisions about hearing and disposal according to law, it is impossible to avoid the inference that a duty is imposed upon the Central Government in deciding the appeal to act judicially.   103. M.  Hidayatullah,  J.,  in a separate  but concurring judgment, observed thus: “Courts and tribunals act “judicially” in both senses, and in the term “court” are included the ordinary and permanent tribunals and in the term “tribunal” are included all others, which are not so included.   Now,   the   matter   would   have   been simple,   if   the   Companies   Act,   1956   had designated a person or persons whether by name 94
or by office for the purpose of hearing an appeal<br>under Section 111. It would then have been<br>clear that though such person or persons were<br>not “courts” in the sense explained, they were<br>clearly “tribunals”. The Act says that an appeal<br>shall lie to the Central Government. We are,<br>therefore, faced with the question whether the<br>Central Government can be said to be a tribunal.<br>Reliance is placed upon a recent decision of this<br>Court in Shivji Nathubai v. Union of India [(1960) 2<br>SCR 775] where it was held that the Central<br>Government in exercising power of review under the<br>Mineral Concession Rules, 1949, was subject to the<br>appellate jurisdiction conferred by Article 136. In<br>that case which came to this Court on appeal from<br>the High Court's order under Article 226, it was<br>held on the authority of Province of<br>Bombay v. Kushaldas S. Advani [(1950) SCR 621]<br>and Rex v. Electricity Commissioners [(1924) 1 KB<br>171] that the action of the Central Government was<br>quasi­judicial and not administrative. It was then<br>observed:
“It is in the circumstances apparent that<br>as soon as Rule 52 gives a right to an<br>aggrieved party to apply for review a lis is<br>created between him and the party in<br>whose favour the grant has been made.<br>Unless therefore there is anything in the<br>statute to the contrary it will be the duty<br>of the authority to act judicially and its<br>decision would be a quasi­judicial act.”
This observation only establishes that the decision<br>is a quasi­judicial one, but it does not say that the<br>Central Government can be regarded as a tribunal.<br>In my opinion, these are very different matters, and
95 now that the question has been raised, it should be decided. The function that the Central Government performs under the Act and the Rules is to hear an appeal   against  the  action  of the  Directors. For   that   purpose,   a   memorandum   of   appeal setting out the grounds has to be filed, and the company,   on   notice,   is   required   to   make representations,   if   any,   and   so   also   the   other side,   and   both   sides   are   allowed   to   tender evidence to support their representations. The Central   Government   by   its   order   then   directs that   the   shares   be   registered   or   need   not   be registered.   The   Central   Government   is   also empowered to include in its orders, directions as to payment of costs or otherwise. The function of   the   Central   Government   is   curial   and   not executive. There is provision for a hearing and a decision on evidence, and that is indubitably a curial function. Now,   in   its   functions   the   Government   often reaches   decisions,   but   all   decisions   of   the Government   cannot   be   regarded   as   those   of   a tribunal. Resolutions of the Government may affect rights of parties, and yet, they may not be in the exercise   of   the   judicial   power.   Resolutions   of   the Government   may   be   amenable   to   writs   under Articles 32 and 226 in appropriate cases, but may not be subject to a direct appeal under Article 136 as   the   decisions   of   a   tribunal.   The   position, however,   changes   when   Government   embarks upon curial functions, and proceeds to exercise judicial   power   and   decide   disputes.   In   those circumstances,   it   is   legitimate   to   regard   the officer   who   deals   with   the   matter   and   even   The officer who Government itself as a tribunal. 96 decides, may even be anonymous; but the decision is one of a tribunal, whether expressed in his name or   in   the   name   of   the   Central   Government.   The word “tribunal” is a word of wide import, and the words   “court”   and   “tribunal”   embrace   within them   the   exercise   of   judicial   power   in   all   its   The decision of the Government thus falls forms. within the powers of this Court under Article 136.”   [emphasis supplied] M.   Hidayatullah,   J.   proceeded   to   consider   as   to 104. whether the Central Government, while exercising its powers under Section 111 of the Companies Act, 1956, can be said to be a “Tribunal”.  On perusal of the scheme of Section 111 of the Companies Act, 1956, His Lordship has observed that the   function   of   the   Central   Government   under   the   said section is curial and not executive.  There is a provision for a hearing and a decision on evidence, and that is indubitably a curial function.  His Lordship further held that in its various functions,   Government   often   reaches   a   decision,   but   all decisions of the Government cannot be regarded as those of a tribunal. However, when Government embarks upon curial functions, and proceeds to exercise judicial power and decide disputes, it is legitimate to regard the officer who deals with 97 the matter and even Government itself as a tribunal.   His Lordship further goes on to hold that t he officer who decides, may   even   be   anonymous;   but   the   decision   is   one   of   a tribunal, whether expressed in his name or in the name of the Central Government.  105. A Constitution Bench of this Court in the case of Shankarlal   Aggarwala   and   Others   v.   Shankarlal 43 , was   considering   a   question   as   to Poddar   and   Others   whether the order passed by the Company Judge confirming the   sale   was   an   administrative   order   or   a   judicial   order. Answering the said question, this Court, speaking through N. Rajagopala Ayyangar, J., observed thus: “On   the   basis   of   these   provisions,   we   shall proceed to consider whether the confirmation of the sale   was   merely   an   order   in   the   course   of administration and not a judicial order. The sale by the liquidator was, of course, effected in the course of the realisation of the assets of the company and for the purpose of the amount realised being applied towards   the   discharge   of   the   liabilities   and   the surplus to be distributed in the manner provided by the Act. It would also be correct to say that when a liquidator effects a sale he is not discharging any judicial function. Still it does not follow that every order of the Court merely for the reason that it is 43 [1964] 1 SCR 717 98 passed in the course of the realisation of the assets of the company must always be treated as merely an   administrative   one.   The   question   ultimately depends   upon  the   nature   of  the   order  that  is passed.  An  order  according  sanction  to   a  sale undoubtedly involves a discretion and cannot be termed   merely   a   ministerial   order,   for   before confirming the sale the Court has to be satisfied, particularly where the confirmation is opposed, that the sale has been held in accordance with the   conditions   subject   to   which   alone   the liquidator has been permitted to effect it, and that even otherwise the sale has been fair and has not resulted in any loss to the parties who would ultimately have to share the realisation. The next question is whether such an order could be classified as an administrative order. One thing is clear, that the mere fact that the order is passed in the course of the administration of the assets of the company and for realising those assets is   not   by   itself   sufficient   to   make   it   an administrative,   as   distinguished   from   a   judicial order. For instance, the determination of amounts due to the company from its debtors which is also part of the process of the realisation of the assets of the company is a matter which arises in the course of the administration. It does not on that account follow   that   the   determination   of   the   particular amount due from a debtor who is brought before the Court is an administrative order. It   is   perhaps   not   possible   to   formulate   a definition which would satisfactorily distinguish, in this   context,   between   an   administrative   and   a judicial  order.   That  the   power   is   entrusted   to  or wielded by a person who functions as a Court is not decisive of the question whether the act or decision 99 is administrative or judicial.  But we conceive that an administrative order would be one which is directed   to   the   regulation   or   supervision   of matters   as   distinguished   from   an   order   which decides the rights of parties or confers or refuses to   confer   rights   to   property   which   are   the subject of adjudication before the Court. One of the   tests   would   be   whether   a   matter   which involves the exercise of discretion is left for the decision   of   the   authority,   particularly   if   that authority were a Court, and if the discretion has to   be   exercised   on   objective,   as   distinguished from a purely subjective, consideration, it would be a judicial decision.  It has sometimes been said that  the  essence  of  a judicial proceeding  or  of  a judicial order is that there should be two parties and   a  lis  between   them   which   is   the   subject   of adjudication, as a result of that order or a decision on an issue between a proposal and an opposition. No doubt, it would not be possible to describe an order passed deciding a  lis  before the authority, that it is not a judicial order but it does not follow that the absence of a  lis  necessarily negatives the order being   judicial.   Even   viewed   from   this   narrow standpoint   it   is   possible   to   hold   that   there   was a  lis  before the Company Judge which he decided by passing the order. On the one hand were the Claims of   the   highest   bidder   who   put   forward   the contention that he had satisfied the requirements laid down for the acceptance of his bid and was consequently entitled to have the sale in his favour confirmed, particularly so as he was supported in this behalf by the official liquidators. On the other hand there was the 1st respondent and not to speak of him, the large body of unsecured creditors whose interests, even if they were not represented by the 1st respondent, the Court was bound to protect. If 100 the   sale   of   which   confirmation   was   sought   was characterised by any deviation from the conditions subject to which the sale was directed to be held or even otherwise was for a gross undervalue in the sense   that   very   much   more   could   reasonably   be expected to be obtained if the sale were properly held in view of the figure of Rs 3,37,000 which had been bid by Nandlal Agarwalla, it would be the duty of   the   Court   to   refuse   the   confirmation   in   the interests of the general body of creditors and this was the submission made by the 1st respondent. There were thus two points of view presented to the Court by two contending parties or interests and the Court was called upon to decide between them. And the decision vitally affected the rights of the parties to   property.   In   this   view   we   are   clearly   of   the opinion   that   the   order   of   the   Court   was,   in   the circumstances,   a   judicial   order   and   not   an administrative one and was therefore not inherently incapable of being brought up in appeal. [emphasis supplied] 106. The Constitution Bench in the case of   Shankarlal (supra) held that the question as to Aggarwala and Others  whether   the  order  passed   by  a  court  is  administrative  or judicial, would depend upon the nature of the order that is passed.   The order undoubtedly   involves a discretion and cannot be termed merely a ministerial order.   His Lordship distinguished   an   administrative   order   to   be   one   which   is 101 directed to the regulation or supervision of matters as against an order which decides the rights of parties or confers or refuses to confer rights to property which are the subject of adjudication before the court. It has further been held that one of the tests for deciding whether the power exercised is administrative or judicial, would be whether a matter, which involves the exercise of discretion, is left for the decision of the authority, particularly if that authority were a court, and if   the   discretion   has   to   be   exercised   on   objective,   as distinguished   from   a   purely   subjective,   consideration,   it would be a judicial decision. 107. We   have,   hereinabove,   elaborately   considered   the scheme under Sections 15, 16 and 17 of the 1940 Act.  The perusal of the said scheme would clearly reveal that before making an award “Rule of Court” by passing a judgment and decree,   the   court   is   required   to   take   into   consideration various   factors,   apply   its   mind   and   also   exercise   its discretion judicially.   We find that the aforesaid provisions have   not   been   considered   in   the   case   of   G.C.   Kanungo (supra).  The perusal of the aforesaid provisions, as has been 102 considered by us hereinabove, would clearly show that the power exercised by the court under Section 17 of the 1940 Act is a judicial power.  We are therefore of the view that the findings   in   this   respect   as   recorded   by   this   Court   in paragraphs 15 to 18 in the case of   (supra) G.C. Kanungo   would be  per incuriam  the provisions of the 1940 Act. 108. We further find that the two Constitution Benches in the   cases   of   Harinagar   Sugar   Mills   Ltd.   (supra)   and (supra)   have Shankarlal   Aggarwala   and   Others   elaborately   considered   as   to   what   could   be   construed   as judicial power of a court. In the case of   Harinagar Sugar (supra), though the power to be exercised was by Mills Ltd.  the   Central   Government,   the   Constitution   Bench,   upon examining the scope of Section 111 of the Companies Act, 1956, held the said power to be a judicial one.  In the case of (supra),   the Shankarlal   Aggarwala   and   Others   Constitution Bench distinguished between the administrative and judicial powers of the court.  This Court in paragraph 17 in the case of  G.C. Kanungo  (supra) rightly observed that the 103 State Legislature has no legislative power to render ineffective the earlier judicial decisions by making a law.   It cannot simply declare the earlier decisions invalid or not binding. However, observing this, in paragraph 18, this Court held that the power exercised by the court in making the awards of the Special Arbitration Tribunals the “Rules of Court”, is not a judicial power.  We are of the considered view that the aforesaid finding is not only  per incuriam  the provisions of the 1940  Act but also the  two judgments  of  the   Constitution Bench in the cases of  Harinagar Sugar Mills Ltd.  (supra) and  (supra).   Shankarlal Aggarwala and Others  109. A seven­Judge Bench of this Court in the case of Bengal Immunity Company Limited v. State of Bihar and 44 Others , was considering the question as to whether the majority   decision   in   the   case   of   State   of   Bombay   and 45 Another v. United Motors  (India) Limited and Others laid down a correct law.   The authority of the court to go beyond   the   majority   decision   was   questioned.   While 44 [1955] 2 SCR 603 45 [1953] SCR 1069 104 considering the said objection, before going into the merits of the matter, S.R. Das, Acting C.J., observed thus:
“……..Learned counsel for some of the
interveners question our authority to go behind the
majority decision. It is, therefore, necessary at this
stage to determine this preliminary question before
entering upon a detailed discussion on the question
of construction of Article 286.
In England, the Court of Appeal has imposed
upon its power of review of earlier precedents a
limitation, subject to certain exceptions. The
limitation thus accepted is that it is bound to follow
its own decisions and those of courts of Coordinate
jurisdiction, and the “full” court is in the same
position in this respect as a division Court
consisting of three members. The only exceptions to
this Rule are: (1) the court is entitled and bound to
decide which of the two conflicting decisions of its
own it will follow; (2) the Court is bound to refuse to
follow a decision of its own which, though not
expressly overruled, cannot, in its opinion stand
with a decision of the House of Lords; and (3) the
court is not bound to follow a decision of its own, if
it is satisfied that the decision was givenper
incuriame.g. where a statute or a rule having
statutory effect which would have affected the
decision was not brought to the attention of the
earlier court. [SeeYoungv.Bristol Aeroplane Co.
Ltd.[LR 1944 KB 718 CA] which, on appeal to the
House of Lords, was approved by Viscount Simon in
LR 1946 AC 163 at p. 169]. A decision of the House
of Lords upon a question of law is conclusive and
binds the House in subsequent case. An erroneous
decision of the House of Lords can be set right only
by an Act of Parliament. [SeeStreet
Tramwaysv.London County Council[1898 AC 375]
This limitation was repeated by Lord Wright
105
inRadcliffev.Ribble Motor Services Ltd.[1939 AC
215 at p. 245]”
In   the   case   of   110. State   of   U.P.   and   Another   v. 46 Synthetics and Chemicals Ltd. and Another , this Court observed thus: “ 40.  ‘Incuria’   literally   means   ‘carelessness’.   In practice  per   incuriam  appears   to   mean  per ignoratium .   English   courts   have   developed   this principle in relaxation of the rule of stare decisis. The ‘quotable in law’ is avoided and ignored if it is rendered, ‘ in ignoratium  of a statute or other binding authority’.   ( Young  v.  Bristol   Aeroplane   Co. Ltd.  [(1944) 1 KB 718 : (1944) 2 All ER 293] ). Same has been accepted, approved and adopted by this Court   while   interpreting   Article   141   of   the Constitution   which   embodies   the   doctrine   of precedents   as   a   matter   of   law.   In  Jaisri Sahu  v.  Rajdewan Dubey  [(1962) 2 SCR 558 : AIR 1962   SC   83]   this   Court   while   pointing   out   the procedure to be followed when conflicting decisions are   placed   before   a   bench   extracted   a   passage from  Halsbury's Laws of England  incorporating one of the exceptions when the decision of an appellate court is not binding. 41.  Does   this   principle   extend   and   apply   to   a conclusion   of   law,   which   was   neither   raised   nor preceded by any consideration. In other words can such conclusions  be considered  as declaration  of law? Here again the English courts and jurists have carved out an exception to the rule of precedents. It 46 (1991) 4 SCC 139 106 has   been   explained   as   rule   of   sub­silentio.   “A decision passes sub­silentio, in the technical sense that has come to be attached to that phrase, when the particular point of law involved in the decision is not perceived by the court or present to its mind.” ( Salmond   on   Jurisprudence  12th   Edn.,   p.   153). In  Lancaster   Motor   Company   (London) Ltd.  v.  Bremith Ltd.  [(1941) 1 KB 675, 677 : (1941) 2 All ER 11] the Court did not feel bound by earlier decision as it was rendered ‘without any argument, without reference to the crucial words of the rule and without any citation of the authority’. It was approved by this Court in  Municipal Corporation of Delhi  v.  Gurnam   Kaur .   [(1989)   1   SCC   101]   The bench   held   that,   ‘precedents   sub­silentio   and without argument are of no moment’. The courts thus   have   taken   recourse   to   this   principle   for relieving   from   injustice   perpetrated   by   unjust precedents. A decision which is not express and is not   founded   on   reasons   nor   it   proceeds   on consideration of issue cannot be deemed to be a law declared to have a binding effect as is contemplated by Article 141. Uniformity and consistency are core of judicial discipline. But that which escapes in the judgment   without   any   occasion   is   not  ratio decidendi .   In  B.   Shama   Rao  v.  Union   Territory   of Pondicherry  [AIR 1967 SC 1480 : (1967) 2 SCR 650 : 20 STC 215] it was observed, ‘it is trite to say that a decision is binding not because of its conclusions but in regard to its ratio and the principles, laid down therein’. Any declaration or conclusion arrived without application of mind or preceded without any reason cannot be deemed to be declaration of law or authority   of   a   general   nature   binding   as   a precedent. Restraint in dissenting or overruling is for   sake   of   stability   and   uniformity   but   rigidity 107 beyond reasonable limits is inimical to the growth of law.” 111. This Court further in the case of   Sundeep Kumar 47 , observed Bafna v. State of Maharashtra and Another thus:
19.It cannot be overemphasised that the discipline
demanded by a precedent or the disqualification or
diminution of a decision on the application of
theper incuriamrule is of great importance, since
without it, certainty of law, consistency of rulings
and comity of courts would become a costly
casualty. A decision or judgment can beper
incuriamany provision in a statute, rule or
regulation, which was not brought to the notice of
the court. A decision or judgment can also beper
incuriamif it is not possible to reconcile
itsratiowith that of a previously pronounced
judgment of a co­equal or larger Bench; or if the
decision of a High Court is not in consonance with
the views of this Court. It must immediately be
clarified that theper incuriamrule is strictly and
correctly applicable to theratio decidendiand not
toobiter dicta. It is often encountered in High
Courts that two or more mutually irreconcilable
decisions of the Supreme Court are cited at the Bar.
We think that the inviolable recourse is to apply the
earliest view as the succeeding ones would fall in
the category ofper incuriam.”
47 (2014) 16 SCC 623 108 112. The   perusal   of   the   judgment   in   the   case   of   G.C. (supra) would reveal that though the court has Kanungo   recorded the submissions of the counsel for the petitioners therein,   that   the   Legislature   has   no   power   to   render ineffective the earlier judicial decisions by making a law and though   judgments   were   cited   in   support   of   the   said proposition, the court did not consider it necessary to refer to the   said   decisions.     However,   without   considering   the provisions   of   the   1940   Act   or   the   two   judgments   of   the Constitution Bench in the cases of  Harinagar Sugar Mills (supra)   and   Ltd.   Shankarlal   Aggarwala   and   Others (supra), it went on to hold that the powers exercised by a court while making an award “Rule of Court”, are not judicial powers.  We find that the finding to that effect in the case of G.C. Kanungo   (supra), apart from being   per incuriam   the provisions of the 1940 Act and the law laid down by the Constitution Bench in the cases of  Harinagar Sugar Mills Ltd.   (supra)   and   Shankarlal   Aggarwala   and   Others (supra), would also be hit by the rule of  sub silentio .   109 113. The   perusal   of   the   subsequent   judgments   of   this Court   would   also   fortify   the   position   that   the   powers exercised by the court under the provisions of the 1940 Act are judicial powers and that the power to make an award “Rule of Court” is not a mechanical power.   114. In the case of  Steel Authority of India Ltd. v. J.C. 48 , this Budharaja,   Government   and   Mining   Contractor   Court observed thus:
17.……Whether the arbitrator has acted beyond
the terms of the contract or has travelled beyond his
jurisdiction would depend upon facts,which
however would be jurisdictional facts, and are
required to be gone into by the court……”
[emphasis supplied]
115. While considering the discretion to be exercised by the court under Section 16 of the 1940 Act, this Court, in the case of   Ramachandra Reddy & Co. v. State of A.P. and 49 , observed thus: Others  
5.Under the Arbitration Act, Section 16 is the
provision under which the court may remit the
award for reconsideration of an arbitrator and
necessity for remitting the award arises when there
48 (1999) 8 SCC 122 49 (2001) 4 SCC 241 110
are omissions and defects in the award, which
cannot be modified or corrected.Remission of an
award is in the discretion of the court and the
powers of the court are circumscribed by the
provisions of Section 16 itself. Ordinarily,
therefore, a court may be justified in remitting
the matter if the arbitrator leaves any of the
matters undetermined or a part of the matter
which had not been referred to and answered
and that part cannot be separated from the
remaining part,without affecting the decision on
the matter, which was referred to arbitration or the
award is so indefinite as to be incapable of
execution or that the award is erroneous on the face
of it.Discretion having been conferred on the
court to remit an award, the said discretion has
to be judicially exercised and an appellate court
would not be justified in interfering with the
exercise of discretion unless the discretion has
been misused.What is an error apparent on the
face of an award which requires to be corrected, has
always been a subject­matter of discussion. An
error of law on the face of the award would mean
that one can find in the award or a document
actually incorporated thereto stating the reasons for
a judgment some legal propositions which are the
basis of the award and which can be said to be
erroneous. Documents not incorporated directly or
indirectly into the award cannot be looked into for
the purpose of finding out any alleged error. The
courts are not to investigate beyond the award of
the arbitrators and the documents actually
incorporated therein and, therefore, when there
would be no patent error on the face of the award, it
would not be open for the court to go into the
proceedings of the award. If the application for
remittance filed by the claimants invoking
jurisdiction of the court under Section 16 is
111
[emphasis supplied]
was
considering the question as to whether the powers of the Chief Justice of High Court or Chief Justice of India under Sections 11(6) and 8 of the 1996 Act are administrative or judicial.   117. After   referring   to   the   earlier   decisions,   P.K. Balasubramanyan,   J.,   delivering   a   majority   judgment, observed thus:  “ 36.  Going by the above test it is seen that at least in the matter of deciding his own jurisdiction and in the   matter   of   deciding   on   the   existence   of   an arbitration   agreement,   the   Chief   Justice   when confronted with two points of view presented by the 50 (2005) 8 SCC 618 112 rival parties, is called upon to decide between them and   the   decision   vitally   affects   the   rights   of   the parties in that, either the claim for appointing an Arbitral Tribunal leading to an award is denied to a party or the claim to have an arbitration proceeding set in motion for entertaining a claim is facilitated by   the   Chief   Justice.   In   this   context,   it   is   not possible   to   say   that   the   Chief   Justice   is   merely exercising an administrative function when called upon to appoint an arbitrator and that he need not even   issue   notice   to   the   opposite   side   before appointing an arbitrator. 37.  It   is   fundamental   to   our   procedural jurisprudence, that the right of no person shall be affected  without  he   being  heard.  This  necessarily imposes an obligation on the Chief Justice to issue notice to the opposite party when he is moved under Section 11 of the Act. The notice to the opposite party   cannot   be   considered   to   be   merely   an intimation   to   that   party   of   the   filing   of   the arbitration   application   and   the   passing   of   an administrative order appointing an arbitrator or an Arbitral   Tribunal.   It   is   really   the   giving   of   an opportunity of being heard. There have been cases where claims for appointment of an arbitrator based on an arbitration agreement are made ten or twenty years after the period of the contract has come to an end. There have been cases where the appointment of an arbitrator has been sought, after the parties had settled the accounts and the party concerned had certified that he had no further claims against the other contracting party. In other words, there have been occasions when dead claims are sought to   be   resurrected.   There   have   been   cases   where assertions are made of the existence of arbitration agreements when, in fact, such existence is strongly disputed by the other side who appears on issuance 113 of   notice.   Controversies   are   also   raised   as   to whether the claim that is sought to be put forward comes within the purview of the arbitration clause concerned at all. The Chief Justice has necessarily to apply his mind to these aspects before coming to a   conclusion   one   way   or   the   other   and   before proceeding to appoint an arbitrator or declining to appoint   an   arbitrator.   Obviously,   this   is   an adjudicatory process. An opportunity of hearing to both   parties   is   a   must.   Even   in   administrative functions   if   rights   are   affected,   rules   of   natural justice   step   in.   The   principles   settled by  Ridge  v.  Baldwin  [(1963) 2 All ER 66 : 1964 AC 40   :   (1963)   2   WLR   935   (HL)]   are   well   known. Therefore, to the extent,  Konkan Rly . [(2002) 2 SCC 388] states that no notice need be issued to the opposite party to give him an opportunity of being heard before appointing an arbitrator, with respect, the same has to be held to be not sustainable.” 118. It could thus be seen that this Court in unequivocal terms has held that the powers exercised by the Chief Justice of the High Court or Chief Justice of India under Section 11(6) of the 1996 Act are not administrative but are judicial powers.   It would thus not sound to reason, that when a power under Section 11(6) of the 1996 Act for appointment of an arbitrator has been held to be a judicial power, the power to make an award a “Rule of Court”, which can be made only upon the satisfaction of the court on the existence of the 114 eventualities set out in Section 17 of the 1940 Act, is not an exercise of judicial power. 119. A Constitution Bench of this Court in the case of 51 State of Tamil Nadu v. State of Kerala and Another , after an elaborate survey of all the earlier judgments, has summed   up   the   Law   on   “separation   of   powers   doctrine” under the Constitution of India, as under: “ Summary   of   separation   of   powers   doctrine under the Indian Constitution 126.  On deep reflection of the above discussion, in our   opinion,   the   constitutional   principles   in   the context of Indian Constitution relating to separation of   powers   between   the   legislature,   executive   and judiciary may, in brief, be summarised thus: 126.1.  Even   without   express   provision   of   the separation of powers, the doctrine of separation of powers   is   an   entrenched   principle   in   the Constitution of India. The doctrine of separation of powers informs the Indian constitutional structure and it is an essential constituent of rule of law. In other   words,   the   doctrine   of   separation   of   power though not expressly engrafted in the Constitution, its sweep, operation and visibility are apparent from the scheme of Indian Constitution. Constitution has made   demarcation,   without   drawing   formal   lines between   the   three   organs—legislature,   executive and judiciary. In that sense, even in the absence of express   provision   for   separation   of   powers,   the separation   of   powers   between   the   legislature, 51 (2014) 12 SCC 696 115 executive   and   judiciary   is   not   different   from   the Constitutions   of   the   countries   which   contain express provision for separation of powers. 126.2.  Independence of courts from the executive and legislature is fundamental to the rule of law and one of the basic tenets of Indian Constitution. Separation   of   judicial   power   is   a   significant constitutional   principle   under   the   Constitution   of India. 126.3.  Separation of powers between three organs— the   legislature,   executive   and   judiciary—is   also nothing but a consequence of principles of equality enshrined in Article 14 of the Constitution of India. Accordingly, breach of separation of judicial power may amount to negation of equality under Article 14. Stated thus, a legislation can be invalidated on the basis of breach of the separation of powers since such breach is negation of equality under Article 14 of the Constitution. 126.4.  The   superior   judiciary   (High   Courts   and Supreme Court) is empowered by the Constitution to declare a law made by the legislature (Parliament and State Legislatures) void if it is found to have transgressed the constitutional limitations or if it infringed   the   rights   enshrined   in   Part   III   of   the Constitution.  The doctrine of separation of powers applies 126.5. to the final judgments of the courts. The legislature cannot declare any decision of a court of law to be void   or   of   no   effect.   It   can,   however,   pass   an amending Act to remedy the defects pointed out by a court of law or on coming to know of it aliunde. In other words, a court's decision must always bind unless the conditions on which it is based are so fundamentally altered that the decision could not have been given in the altered circumstances. 116
126.6. If the legislature has the power over the<br>subject­matter and competence to make a validating<br>law, it can at any time make such a validating law<br>and make it retrospective. The validity of a<br>validating law, therefore, depends upon whether the<br>legislature possesses the competence which it<br>claims over the subject­matter and whether in<br>making the validation law it removes the defect<br>which the courts had found in the existing law.
126.7. The law enacted by the legislature may<br>apparently seem to be within its competence but yet<br>in substance if it is shown as an attempt to interfere<br>with the judicial process, such law may be<br>invalidated being in breach of doctrine of separation<br>of powers. In such situation, the legal effect of the<br>law on a judgment or a judicial proceeding must be<br>examined closely, having regard to legislative<br>prescription or direction. The questions to be asked<br>are:
(i) Does the legislative prescription or<br>legislative direction interfere with the<br>judicial functions?
(ii) Is the legislation targeted at the<br>decided case or whether impugned law<br>requires its application to a case already<br>finally decided?
(iii) What are the terms of law; the issues<br>with which it deals and the nature of the<br>judgment that has attained finality?
If the answer to Questions (i) and (ii) is in the<br>affirmative and the consideration of aspects noted<br>in Question (iii) sufficiently establishes that the
117 impugned law interferes with the judicial functions, the Court may declare the law unconstitutional.” 120. It could thus be seen that the Constitution Bench in the aforesaid case held that, though a law enacted by the Legislature may apparently seem to be within its competence but yet  in substance if it is shown as an attempt to interfere with the judicial process, such law may be invalidated being in   breach   of   doctrine   of   separation   of   powers.     The Constitution Bench stipulated three questions to be asked in such a situation, which are reproduced hereinabove.   We   have   already   held   that   since   the   State   Act   is 121. referable to Entry 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India, it is within the competence of the State Legislature.  The question that will have to be considered is whether it is an attempt to interfere with the judicial process. For that, we will have to consider the three questions framed by the Constitution Bench in the case of   State of Tamil Nadu v. State of Kerala and Another  (supra). A perusal of the various provisions of the State Act would clearly show 118 that   the   State   Act   has   been   enacted   since   the   State Government was aggrieved by various awards passed against it.  It was therefore found expedient, in the public interest, to cancel the arbitration clause in the agreement, to revoke the authority   of   the   arbitrators   appointed   thereunder   and   to enable the filing of appeals against the awards or decrees.  As already   discussed   hereinabove,   most   of   the   awards   were made “Rules of Court” prior to 1993.  In many of the cases, appeals were also preferred by the State Government.   As such, we find that the legislative prescriptions and legislative directions in the State Act undoubtedly interfere with the judicial   functions.     It   is   also   clear   that   the   legislation   is targeted at the awards passed which have become “Rule of Court”.     As   already   discussed   hereinabove,   the   powers exercised by the courts under Section 17 of the 1940 Act are judicial   powers   of   the   State.     As   such,   we   are   of   the considered view that question Nos. 1 and 2 as framed by the Constitution Bench in the case of   State of Tamil Nadu v. State of Kerala and Another   (supra) are required to be answered in the affirmative.  Upon consideration of the terms 119 of the State Act, the issues with which it deals, it is clear that the State Act interferes with the judicial functions.   122. We   are   therefore   of   the   considered   view   that   the State Act, which has the effect of annulling the awards which have   become   “Rules   of   Court”,   is   a   transgression   on   the judicial   functions   of   the   State   and   therefore,   violative   of doctrine of “separation of powers”.  As such, the State Act is liable to be declared unconstitutional on this count. We may also gainfully refer to the observations of 123. this Court in the case of  P. Tulsi Das and Others v. Govt. 52 .   In the said case, this Court, while of A.P. and Others considering the legislative power of the State to enact a law, which amounted to taking away the rights, which are already accrued to the parties long back, has observed thus:
14.On a careful consideration of the principles laid
down in the above decisions in the light of the fact
situation in these appeals we are of the view that
they squarely apply on all fours to the cases on
hand in favour of the appellants. The submissions
on behalf of the respondent State that the rights
derived and claimed by the appellants must be
under any statutory enactment or rules made under
Article 309 of the Constitution of India and that in
52 (2003) 1 SCC 364 120 other respects there could not be any acquisition of rights validly, so as to disentitle the State to enact the law of the nature under challenge to set right serious anomalies which had crept in and deserved to be undone, does not merit our acceptance. It is by   now   well  settled   that  in   the   absence   of   rules under Article 309 of the Constitution in respect of a particular area, aspect or subject, it is permissible for the State to make provisions in exercise of its executive   powers   under   Article   162   which   is coextensive   with   its   legislative   powers   laying conditions   of   service   and   rights   accrued   to   or acquired   by   a   citizen   would   be   as   much   rights acquired under law and protected to that extent. The orders passed by the Government, from time to time beginning from February 1967 till 1985 and at any rate up to the passing of the Act, to meet the administrative exigencies and cater to the needs of public   interest   really   and   effectively   provided sufficient   legal   basis   for   the   acquisition   of   rights during the period when they were in full force and effect. The orders of the High Court as well as the Tribunal   also   recognised   and   upheld   such   rights and   those   orders   attained   finality   without   being further   challenged   by   the   Government,   in   the manner  known  to  law.  Such  rights,  benefits  and perquisites   acquired   by   the   teachers   concerned cannot be said to be rights acquired otherwise than in   accordance   with   law   or   brushed   aside   and trampled   at   the   sweet   will   and   pleasure   of   the Government, with impunity. Consequently, we are unable   to   agree   that   the   legislature   could   have validly   denied   those   rights   acquired   by   the appellants retrospectively not only depriving them of such rights but also enact a provision to repay and restore the amounts paid to them to the State. The provisions of  the  Act, though can be valid in its operation “in futuro” cannot be held valid insofar as it purports to restore status quo ante for the past period taking away the benefits already available, 121
accrued and acquired by them. For all the reasons
stated above the reasons assigned by the majority
opinion of the Tribunal could not be approved in
our hands.The provisions of Sections 2 and 3(a)
insofar as they purport to take away the rights
from 10­2­1967 and obligate those who had
them to repay or restore them back to the State
are hereby struck down as arbitrary,
unreasonable and expropriatory and as such are
violative of Articles 14 and 16 of the
Constitution of India.No exception could be
taken, in our view, to the prospective exercise of
powers thereunder without infringing the rights
already acquired by the appellants and the category
of the persons similarly situated whether
approached the courts or not seeking relief
individually. The provisions contained in Section 2
have to be read down so as to make it only
prospective, to save the same from the
unconstitutionality arising out of its retrospective
application.”
[emphasis supplied] 124. It could be seen that this Court has held that the provisions   of   Sections   2   and   3(a)   of   the   Andhra   Pradesh Education Service Untrained Teachers (Regulation of Services and Fixation of Pay) Act, 1991 insofar as they purport to take away   the   rights   accrued   in   favour   of   the   citizens   and requiring them to repay or restore them back to the State, are arbitrary, unreasonable and expropriatory.  It has, therefore, 122 been held that the said provisions are violative of Articles 14 and 16 of the Constitution of India. 125. As   already   discussed   hereinabove,   what   has   been done   by   the   State   Act,   is   annulling   the   awards   and   the judgments and decrees passed by the court vide which the awards were made “Rule of Court”.  As such, the rights which accrued to the parties much prior to the enactment of the State Act have been sought to be taken away by it.   Though,   elaborate  arguments   have  been  advanced 126. before us on various other issues, since we have held that the State Act is liable to be held unconstitutional on the ground of encroachment upon the judicial powers of the State, we do not find it necessary to deal with the submissions made on behalf of the parties with regard to other issues.   CONCLUSION: 127. In the result, we hold as under: (i) That the State Act in pith and substance is referable to Entry 13 of List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India and not to the Entries 12, 13, 123 14 and 37 of List I of the Seventh Schedule nor to Article 253 of the Constitution of India.   The State Act, therefore, is within the legislative competence of the State Legislature.   In any case, in view of the Presidential   assent   under   Article   254(2)   of   the Constitution   of   India,   the   State   Act   would   prevail within the State of Kerala.   The finding of the High Court of Kerala, to the contrary, is erroneous in law; (ii) That the finding in the case of  G.C. Kanungo  (supra) to the effect that the powers exercised by the courts in   passing   judgments   and   decrees   for   making   the arbitration awards “Rule of Court” is not an exercise of judicial power, is  per incuriam  the provisions of the 1940   Act   and   the   judgments   of   the   Constitution Bench in the cases of  Harinagar Sugar Mills Ltd. (supra)   and   Shankarlal   Aggarwala   and   Others (supra); and (iii) That   the   High   Court   of   Kerala   is   right   in   law   in holding   that   the   State   Act   encroaches   upon   the 124 judicial power of the State and is therefore liable to be struck down as being unconstitutional. 128. The   present   appeals   are   accordingly   disposed   of. Pending application(s), if any, shall stand disposed of in the above terms. No order as to costs. 129. Before   we   part   with   the   judgment,   we   place   on record   our   deep   appreciation   for   the   valuable   assistance rendered by the learned counsel appearing on behalf of the parties. ……..….......................J. [L. NAGESWARA RAO]  …….........................J.        [B.R. GAVAI] NEW DELHI; MAY 04, 2022. 125